北京语言大学英语专业语言学

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这些事各章节重点。大家各取所需，自己弄下来，因为本人不会上传文本文档

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Chapter one
1.        What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language.

2.        What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples.
Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and “storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm” is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson.
Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweet

Duality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning.

Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis of this possibility.
Example: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who……

Displacement: means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present at the moment of communication.
Examples : we can refer to Confucius and Bush at the moment of communication , but the former lived thousands of years ago and the latter live far away from us .
3.        Functions of the language and their examples
⑴ informative function: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. It is predominantly the major role of language. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear sir, Dear professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.
⑵interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality, and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity, and distance.
(3) Performative function: is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.
(4) Emotive function: changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
(5) Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings, farewell, etc.
(6) Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it, such as baby’s babbling and chanter’s chanting.
(7) Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself. For example, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought.
4. What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
4.        Main branches of the linguistics
1)        Phonetics: studies speech sounds, it is the description, classification, and transcription of speech sounds. It includes articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.
2)        Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations between speech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds.
3)        Morphology: the internal structures of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
4)        Syntax: studies the internal structure of sentences
5)        Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language
6)        Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context
5. Macrolinguistics
1) Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. The psycholinguistics constraints on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of languages, and the relationship between language and cognition.
2) Social linguistics: is an umbrella term, which covers a variety of different interest in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.
3) Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language and culture.
4) Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language: machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems.
6. Important distinction in linguistics
1) Descriptive VS Prescriptive
The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive; trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive. To say linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them rules, or norms, of correctness.
2) Synchronic VS diachronic
Studying language as it is used at a particular point in time is synchronic study; studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study.
3) Langue Vs parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is the language system, which is social, essential, and stable while parole is the actual use of the language system, which is individual, accidental, and unstable.
4) Competence VS performance
A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. (Chomsky)
5) Syntagmatic VS paradigmatic relations
Syntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction, syntagmatically related elements form structures.
Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.

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Chapter Two
1. What are speech organs?
Speech organs, also known as vocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, including the lung, the windpipe, the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
2. The IPA—the International Phonetic Alphabet.
3. The discussion between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
4. Consonants are identified by places of articulation and manners of articulation.
The place of articulation: refers to the point where a consonant is made, where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of air.
Manner of articulation: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract,

        Bilabial        Labiodental        dental        alveolar        Palatoalveolar        palatal        velar        glottal
nasal        m                        n                        ŋ       
ploasive        p b                         t d                        k ɡ       
fricative                f v        θ        s z        ∫ ʒ                        h
affricate                                        t∫ dʒ                       
Central approximant        (w)                        r                j        w       
Lateral approximant                                l                               

5. What are the cardinal vowels?
The cardinal vowels are a set of vowels qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provided a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing language.
6. What are monophthong, diphthong, and triphthong.
Monophthong vowels are the pure vowels.
Diphthongs are also called gliding vowels, as in contrast to pure vowels or monophthongs, They are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. The diphthongs in English include______________.
A triphthong is “a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidlu and without interruption.”
7. Coarticulation: the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors; if the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of “lamb”, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of “map” it is perseverative coarticulation.
8. Phonetic transcription VS phonemic transcription  
broad transcription VS narrow transcription
The use of simple sets of symbols in our transcription is called broad transcription, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackers [ ].
By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines / / while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets. Phonemic transcriptions represent the “broad transcriptions”, in this sense, “broad transcription” and “phonemic transcription” coincide.
9. Phneme, phones, allophones, minimal pair, free variation
Phoneme is a phonological unit, which is of distinctive value.
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment, the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
Allophone: the different phones represent the same phoneme in different phonetic environment are called its allophones.
Two phones become allophones of a phoneme should be: 1) in complementary distribution which means they never occur at the same environment. 2) bear phonetic similarity.
10. Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes some or all of the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; in the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. “Anticipatory coarticulation” or “regressive assimilation” is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English.
11. Phonological process
In which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environment or contexts. It must have three aspects of it (a) a set of sounds to undergo the process; (b) a set of sounds produced by the process; (c) a set of situations in which the process applies.
12. suprasegmental features: are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segment. The principal suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.
13. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable, while a syllable with coda is a closed syllable.
14. Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
15. Intonation: when pitch, stress, and length variations are tied to the sentences rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

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Chapter3 Lexicon
1、        Three senses of word
(1)        A physically definable unit. Words may be seen as a set of sounds segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.
(2)        Words both as a general term and as a specific term.
(3)        A grammatical unit.
Ranks：clause complex——clause——phrase/word group——word——morpheme

2、        Identification of words
(1)        Stability. Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.
(2)        Relative unterruptibility. New elements should not be inserted into a word.
(3)        A minimal free form. (Leonard Bloomfield 1933) Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. (sentence-the maximum free form)

3、        Classification of words
(1)        Variable & invariable words
Variable words have inflectional changes; they are mainly nouns, verbs and pronouns, e.g. follow-follows-followed-following
Invariable words do not have inflectional endings, e.g. since, happy, to, etc.

(2)        Grammatical & lexical words
Grammatical words (function word) are used mainly for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text. They serve to link together different content parts, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.
Lexical words (content word) are used for referring to substance, action, and quality. They carry the main content of a language, such as, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

(3)        Closed-class & open-classed words
Closed-class: its membership fixed or limited, one cannot easily add or deduce a new member, .such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.
Open-class: Its membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are being added to the lexicon, such as, nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs.

Note: Preposition is relative open because regarding, in spite of, according to, and ,many others are now regarded as prepositions and complex prepositions.
      Auxiliary verbs are relatively closed in number.

(4)        Word class
9 word classed: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, article, interjection
Particles:
• Infinitive marker “to”
• Negative marker “not”
• Subordinate units in phrasal verbs, e.g., watch out, break down
Auxiliaries
Traditional auxiliaries & modal verbs
       Pro-form
          Pro-adjective/ pro-verb/ pro-adverb/ pro-locative
       Determiners: words used before noun acting as head of a nominal group, and determine the kind of the reference the nominal group has.
           • definite      the
           • indefinite    a/an
           • partitive     some
           • universal     all
          Pre-determiner: all, half, double, twice, one-third, etc.
          Central-determiner: articles, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, possessive pronouns.
          Post-determiner: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals, quatifiers.

Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or altering the meaning.
      
Free morpheme: morpheme that can make up words by itself.
Bound morpheme: morpheme that must appear with at least another morpheme.

Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.（The part of the word that is left when all the affixed are removed.）
Free root: roots that can stand be themselves and are the base forms of words.
Bound root: roots can be used only when added to another morpheme. e.g. –ceive,-cur.
Some roots have both free and bound variants. Sleep-slept, child-children

Affix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
Prefix: para-, un-
Suffix: -tion, -al
Infix: abso-bloomingly-lutely

Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. （Stem may be the same as a root, may contain a root and one or more then one derivational affixes.）

Inflectional vs. derivational
Inflectional affixes:
1.        productive across an entire category.
2.        only add a grammatical meaning to the stem.
3.        do not change the word class of the stem..
4.        often conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors, e.g. the present tense third person singular marker.
5.        normally suffixes in English.
6.        small in number in English.
Derivational affixes:
1.        not productive across an entire category, e.g. –not all verbs can be changed into noun by attaching –tion, only some verbs can be changed in this way.
2.        often change the lexical content.
3.        may or may not change the word class of the stem.
4.        more often based on simply meaning distinctions.
5.        can be both prefixes and suffixes.
6.        much larger in number.

Inflectional Morphology: the study of in flections.
Derivational/Lexical Morphology: the study of word formation.

Inflection indicates grammatical relations be adding inflectional affixes, e.g. number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.

Word-Formation refers to the process of how words are formed.
   Compound (Compositional type): words that consist of more than one lexical (free) morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Complete united, hyphenated, separated.

       Endocentric compound: (Verbal compound/ synthetic compound) the head of a endocentric compound is a de-verb (derived from a verb). Usually the first member is a participants of the process verb.
       Exocentric compound: the first word in an exocentric compound is derived from a verb.
  Derivation: shows a relationship between roots and affixes.

Sememe: the smallest component of meaning.
1.        one morpheme vs. one sememe  -less
2.        one morpheme vs. more than one sememe  a-
3.        one sememe vs. more than one morpheme  il-, im-, ne-, un-
4.        morphemes that have no specific sememe  en-joy, cran-berry
5.        function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change.
There may also be no morpheme change in a word, but both the grammatical and the semantic categories would change according to the context it occurs.
e.g. run a company/ in a short run-----verb and event/ noun and thing

Morphophonology/ Morphonology/ Morphophonemics/ Morphonemics: a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms, and, correspondingly, the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms, It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.
1.        a single morpheme vs. a single morpheme
           Plurality                boys
/z/    Possessive case           john’s
       Means nothing            raise
2.        a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme
Monophonemic    dogs
Monosyllabic      love+ly
Polysyllabic       tobacco
Allomorph: different shapes and phonetic forms of a morpheme.
Morpheme transcription: {-s~-z~-iz~-i:~-n~-ai~-ø}

Morphologically conditioned: have 3 requirements
1.        All the allomorph should have the same sememe.
2.        All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.
3.        Allomorphs that have the same sememe should occur in parallel formation. This suggests that allomorphs have the same functional place in the grammatical structure of the language.

Word formation
1.        invention：many new lexical items come directly from technological and economic activities.
2.        Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.
3.        Abbreviation/Clipping: a new word is created by
(1)        cutting the final part      (advertisement-ad)
(2)        cutting the initial part    (telephone-phone)
(3)        cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly  (influenza-flu)
4.        Acronym: made up from the initial letters of the words in a phrase or idiom or the name of an organization.
WTO -World Trade Organization
Aids -acquired immune deficiency syndrome
5.        Back-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaginary affix form a longer form already in language.
Editor-edit       gangling-gangle
6.        Analogical creation:
7.        Borrowing：from many different languages, esp. Latin, Greek, French, and Spanish.
（1）        Loanwords：both form and meaning are borrowed with only a light adaptation.    Kung-fu(Chinese)
（2）        Loanblend：part of the form is borrowed, part is native, but the meaning is fully borrowed.  Coconut (Spanish)
（3）        Loanshift：the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.
Bridge(a card game from Italy)
（4）        Loan translation：each morpheme or word is translated from the         equivalent morpheme or word into another language.   
Verse libre-free verse

Semantic change
1.        Broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.
2.        Narrowing: the original meaning if a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.
3.        Meaning shift: the departure from the original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.
4.        Class shift/ Zero-derivation/ conversion: by shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.
5.        Folk etymology: the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

Phonological change
(The change in sound leads to the change in form.)
Factors that contribute to the formation of new pronunciation:
1.        Loss: the loss of sound- the disappearance of the very sound as phoneme in the phonological system.
2.        Adding: sounds may be added to the original sound sequence.
3.        Metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.
4.        Assimilation: the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation—Theory of least effort.

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Chapter 5 Semantics
1.        The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics, more specifically: semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words, and sentences in particular.
2.        G.Leech recognizes 7 types for meaning in his semantics
1.        Conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, or denotative content
2.        Connotative meaning: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.
3.        Social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.
4.        Affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.
5.        Reflected meaning: what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.
6.        Collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
7.        Thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
3.        The referential theory: is the theory of meaning, which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for. It is especially true in the case of proper nouns and definite noun phrases. But it cannot refer to the abstract concepts. According to the “semantic triangle” theory, the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is meditated by concept. Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference. The distinction between sense and reference is similar to that between connotation and denotation. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties. Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.
4.        Sense relations
1)        Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. English is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two main sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin. There are many pairs of words of these two sources which mean the same, e.g. buy and purchase , world and universe, brotherly and fraternal.
But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent.
ⅰthey differ in style
ⅱthey may also differ in connotations.
ⅲthere are dialectal differences.
2)        Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation, there are 3 main sub-types: gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, and converse antonymy.
①        Gradable antonymy: good-bad, long-short, big-small
They have three characteristics: firstly, they are gradable; the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other; the can be modified by “very” and they have comparative and superlative degree. Secondly, antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms. A big car is in fact smaller than a small plane. Thirdly, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.
②Complementary antonymy: alive-dead, male-female, present-absent, boy-girl.
Firstly, not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. The adjectives in this type can not be modified by “very”, and don’t have comparative or superlative degrees either.
Secondly, the norm in this type is absolute. It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to.
Thirdly, the norm in this type is absolute. It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to.
Exception: true-false though in many cases they are considered complementary. But there is a cover term. You can say, “How true is this story?” we can also use “very” to modify “true”, it even has comparative and superlative degrees. A description may be truer than another, or is the truest among a number of descriptions, though false can not be used in this way.
②        Converse antonymy: buy-sell, husband-wife, give-receive, parent-child, teacher-student
It is known as relation opposites, there are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. They are typically seen in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations.
3)        Hyponymy, refers to the sense relations between a more general , inclusive word and a more specific word. The word that is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are cohyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion, in terms of meaning, the superordinate inclues all its hyponyms.
5.        Componential analysis: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. i.e. semantic components. Componential analysis gives a better account for sense relations and those between sentences.
Father=parent(x,y)&male(x)
Mother=parent(x,y)&~male(x)
Son=child(x,y)&male(x)
Daughter=child(x,y)&~male(x)
Verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example:
Take=cause(x,(have(x,y)))
Give=cause(x,(~have(x,y)))
Die=become(x,(~alive(x)))
Kill=cause(x,(become(y,(~alive(y)))))
Murder=intend(x,(cause(x,(become(y,(~alive(y))))))
Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components, will be synonymous with each other.
Words, which have a contrasting component, on the other hand, are antonyms.
Words, which have all semantic components of another, are hyponyms of the latter.
6. A more important sense relation between sentences is entailment, e.g.
    a. John killed bill
    b. Bill died.
The member sentences of this pair are in such a relationship that the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first sentence, which the falsity of the first follows the falsity of the second.
6.Setence meaning
The meaning of a sentence is the result of the meaning of the words used in it and its syntactic structure. According to J.Katz and Fodor in 1960s, it depends on the meaning of its constituent words and the way they are combined. A semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary providing the grammatical classification and semantic information of words and a set of projection rules.
7. Logical semantics studies how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.
8. A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.
Truth table of the composite propositions:

P    Q          P & Q         P ˇ Q        P→Q          P≡Q
   T    T        T        T        T        T
   T    F        F        T        F        F
   F    T        F        T        T        F
   F    F        F        F        T        T

听时光

谢谢

听时光

1111

听时光

。rrynhfgn

不懂放手

博主辛苦

张桃桃da

谢谢  很好

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