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Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (January, 2009)
I. Translation (1x20=20%)
Chinese into English=10
English into Chinese=10
II. Fill in the blanks (2x15=30%)
Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms
III. Definitions (5x4=20%)
IV. Short essays (15x2=30%)
Revision
1. Terms for section I, II, and III.
Chapter 7
1) sociolinguistics 2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 3) linguistic determinism 4) linguistic relativity 5) the context of situation 6) communicative competence 7) woman register 8) linguistic sexism
Chapter 8
1) the speech act theory 2)performatives 3) constatives 4) locutionary act 5) illocutionary act 6) perlocutionary act 7) the cooperative principle 8) maxim of quality 9) maxim of quantity 10) maxim of relation 11) maxim of manner 12) calculability 13) cancellability 14) non-detachability 15) non-conventionality 16) contextual meaning 17)pragmatics 18) relevance theory
Chapter 9
1) literary stylistics 2) foregrounding 3) simile 4) metaphor 5) metonymy 6) synecdoche 7) rhyme 8) alliteration 9) assonance 10) consonance 11) reverse rhyme 12) pararhyme 13) repetition 14) meter 15) iamb 16) trochee 17) anapest 18) dactyle 19) spondee 20) couplet 21) quatrain 22) blank verse 23) narrator 24) schemata 25) new information 26) given information 27) direct speech 28) indirection speech 29) free direction speech 30) free indirection speech 31) narrator’s representation of speech acts 32) narrator’s representation of speech
Chapter 12
1) functional sentence perspective 2) systemic-functional grammar 3) American structuralism 4) generative-transformational grammar 5) the innateness hypothesis
2. Essay questions
1). What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
2). How would you summarize the context of situation as proposed by Firth?
3). Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?
4). How would you describe and evaluate the theory of illocutionary acts?
5). How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principle and illustrate with your own example the violation of the maxim?
6). How does the cooperative principle differ from the relevance theory?
7). How is poetry analyzed at the phonological level?
8). How would the innateness hypothesis influence your understanding of child first language acquisition?
9). How would you describe and evaluate the innateness hypothesis about child first languages acquisition?
Chapter 7
Sociolinguistics社会语言学: sociology and linguistics combined, social functions of language and the social characteristics of language users. Language varieties and functions. or
(It is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. According to Labov, sociolinguistics is the study of correlation between linguistic variables and non-linguistic variables. )
The sapir-wholf hypothesis萨丕尔—沃尔夫假设 : What this hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world. or
the best remembered of American Anthropological linguistics. It has 3aspects: 1. Linguistic determinism which means language determines our way of thinking. 2. Linguistic relativity which means the greater the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.3.there are two versions of this hypothesis, strong version which refers to the claim the original hypothesis emphasizes the role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns, and the weak version which suggests this hypothesis is to some extend correct.(a modified type of the original hypothesis)
Linguistic determinism语言决定论: Language determines our way of thinking. vs. Language determines our mental operations in thinking.
Linguistic relativity语言相对主义: similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
The context of situation语境学说p161: Firth tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and the context of situation which contains the following components:
1. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities
a. The verbal action of the participants
b. The non-verbal action of the participants
2. The relevant objects
3. The effects of the verbal action
In one sentence, “who speaks (or writes) what to whom and when and to what end”
Communicative competence交际能力p175: It developed from linguistic competence. And it is the theory of Hyme. It contributes to the language teaching, as the name suggests that the teacher should train their students as the language user in the real language context..
The contents:
1. Whether something is formally possible.
2. Whether something is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.
3. Whether something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.
4. Whether something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.
Woman register女性语言p172: According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features:
1) Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and beige(米色).
2) Women use less powerful curse words.
3) Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful.
4) Women use more tag questions: He’s right, isn’t he?
5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He’s right?
6) Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men: Could you lower your voice a little?
Linguistic sexism语言性别歧视p173: linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man(used to refer to the whole human race), he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen. There are many more words for prostitutes than for whoremasters(嫖客) or whoremongers. If a man behaves strangely, one may say, “There’s a woman in it.” The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.
Chapter8
The speech act theory语言行为理论p186: This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin and presented in How to Do Things with Words. speech act means actions performed via utterances
Performatives施为句p186: Austin classifies sentences in two categories: Performatives and Constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They can not be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g. name this ship Queen Elizabeth.
Constatives叙事句p186: Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is. E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.
Locutionary act发话行为or表述性言语行为、言中行为p188: The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.
(According to Austin, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something, one of them is )locutionary act which is the act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences or the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.
Illocutionary act行事行为or施为性言语行为、言外行为p188: (the other sense is illocutionary act which means) the act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: asking or answering a question, giving some information or an assurance or a warning, pronouncing sentence, making a request or an appointment or a criticism, making identification or giving a description, and many others.
Perlocutionary act取效行为or言后行为p186: the third sense is perlocutionary act which means the consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or inducing him to do something (the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.).
Cooperative principle合作原则p190: According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short. The cooperative principle has four categories of maxims: maxims of quality, maxims of quantity, maxims of relation, and maxims of manner.
Maxims of quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) but do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Maxims of quality: do not say what you believe to be false and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Maxims of relation: Be relevant (what you say)
Maxims of manner: Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. And be orderly.
(Quantity
1. make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)
2. do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
1. do not say what you believe to be false.
2. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation
Be relevant
Manner
Be perspicuous
1. avoid obscurity of expression.
2. avoid ambiguity.
3. be brief
4. be orderly
These maxims are meant to describe what happens in conversations and can be compared to unwritten laws.)
Calculability可计算性p195: It is the first character of implicature. Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including: 1) the conventional meaning of the words, 2) the CP and its maxims, 3) the context, 4) other items of the background knowledge, 5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case. (Hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.)
Cancellability可删除性p196: Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change.
Non-detachability非可分离性p196: A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.
Non-conventionality非规约性p197: implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context. Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words.
Contextual meaning语境意义: meaning in context
The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.
Pragmatics语用学: The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
Relevance theory关联理论p194: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its optimal relevance. (from textbook)
Relevance theory was proposed by Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance. The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in any given context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction. RT is thus a minimalist theory of communication. Relevance is all we need.(from notes)
Chapter 9
Literary stylistics文学文体学p211: It deals with the relationship between language and literature; it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to literary style.
Foregrounding前景化p211: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”
In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.
Simile明喻p214: It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like.
Metaphor隐喻p214: It always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. )
Metonymy借喻p214: It is a change of name, for example, “crown” represents “king”.
Synecdoche提喻p215: It is a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.
Rhyme押韵p217: It serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself.
Alliteration头韵、双声p217: the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:
Assonance元音叠韵p217: the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:
Consonance假韵、辅音叠韵p217: the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:
Reverse rhyme反韵、掉尾韵p218: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:
Pararhyme类尾韵p218: when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they Pararhyme.
Repetition重复p218: the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency.
Metre格p218: when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.
Iamb抑扬格: an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one:
Trochee扬抑格: a trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable:
Anapest抑抑扬格: an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:
Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones.
Spondee扬扬格: a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of only spondaic feet:
Couplet对句: two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme, and It consists of two lines that usually rhyme and have the same meter.
Quatrain四行诗: stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.
Blank verse无韵诗: consists of lines in iambic pentamtre which do not rhyme:
Narrator:
Schemata图式p224: Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience. In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints.
New information新信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new.
Given information已知信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before.
Direct speech直接引语p225: it contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks: “Am I too late?” she asked.
Indirect speech间接引语p225: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.
Free direct speech自由直接引语p226: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both: “Am I too late?”
Free indirect speech自由间接引语p226: more of the narrator’s contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question. Was she too late? She asked.
Narrator’s representation of speech acts叙述者对思维行为的表达p224: a summery of a piece of discourse, the purpose of the speech is remained; it is the functional interpretation of the original words. She asked him a question.
Narrator’s representation of speech叙述者对思维的表达p224: telling us that speech occurs, but the content is not mentioned: She talked with him for a while.
Essay Questions
1. What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
A: Sapir-whorf Hypothesis is a belief that our languages help mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On one hand, language determine our way of thinking, on the other hand, similarity between languages are relative, the greater their structural difference is, the more diverse their conception of world will be. As the hypothesis was put forward by Sapir and whorf, so, it is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
Arguments against S-w Hypothesis: the arguments are directed at strong version of s-w hypothesis, language determinism. It concerns excessively with surface structures of individual languages. In fact all languages are fundamental of the same universal human character. The flaws of that hypothesis can be revealed through the following analysis. One, Different grammatical structures do not mean that speakers of different languages differ in thinking logic. Two, Equivalent translation is always possible in spite of the fact that in practice there are hardly any people in perfect control of two different languages. Three, People who have good command of 2 genetic-unrelated languages do not have “double minds”.
2. How would you summarize the concept of situation as proposed by Firth?
A: Firth was strongly influenced by the Anthropological view of language and he was fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, so he tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and its co-occurent factors. In the end, he developed his theory of “context of situation” which can be summarized as follows: 1, The relevant features of the participants, person, personalities. 2, the relevant objects. 3, The effects of the verbal action.
3. Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?
A: Woman register means that the language used by woman shares some characters which distinguish it from the language used by man. Woman register is a kind of speech variety, because of having a number of distinctive words or by using the words in a unique way or special grammatical structures, but linguistic sexism, is the discrimination against woman. Actually, all the woman register is the weaker-register, the difference between woman and man are governed by society. So, if we want to change the linguistic sexism we need to change the society.
4. How would you describe and evaluated the theory of illocutionary acts?
A: 见terms第8章 4,5,6(locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary) 相加就是整个: theory of illocutionary act. 或书188页—189页.
5. How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principle and illustrate with your own example the violation of the maxim?
A: CP is proposed by English philosopher Grice, its purpose is to explain the course of natural conversation, the participants must first be willing to cooperate, It goes as follows: 1, Maxims of quantity, 2, Maxims of quality, 3, Maxims of relation, 4, Maxims of manner.
Violations: boys are boys; wars are wars----Maxims of quantity.
He is made of iron----Maxims of quality
(at a party) A: “Mr.C is an old dog.” B: “It is a fine day.” ----Maxims of relation
A: “Let’s get kids something.” B: “Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M”----Maxims of manner
6. How does the cooperative principle differ from the relevance theory?
A: 1,definition of CP(见上)
2, Because there is some inconsistency and redundancy among CP and its maxims, linguists of Post-Gricean period, boiled down and simplify the theory of CP. So, they argued all the CP and its maxims should be reduced to the single principle of relevance.
So, we can say that relevance theory which suggests everything we say should be relevant, whether in the surface level or deappear level is the simplest version of CP.
7 analyse poetry at phonological level
First step: to find where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns.
Second step: to analyse the form of sound patterning, there are 7 types of sound patterning: rhyme, alliteration, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme and repetition.
Third step: to analyse the stress and metrical pattering to work out the number of syllables in each line and to fell the stressed or unstressed syllables, when stress is organized to form a regular rhythms, it is called meter, the unit of meter is called feet. So we analyse both the number and the type of feet, there are 6 types of feet, iamb, trochee, the melody, meter, crecotes, rhythm.
Question 8 and 9
Innateness hypothesis, child first language acquisition
According to Chomsky, language is innate and children are born with Language Acquisition Device. Innateness Hypothesis is based on 3 facts.
First: children learn their first language very fast with little effort.
Second: although children learn their first language in quite different environments, the results are the same.
Third: children learn the total grammar of the language during a very limited time, from limited exposure to speech. So although children are not born with a language, they are born with a language, they are born with the device to acquire a language. Chomsky argues that LAD consists of 3 elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure. Children is the hypothesis maker, they look for regularizes in speech and make hypothesis about how to use the language and children must be equipped with an evaluation procedure, which allow them to choose a number of possible grammars. |
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