十分强的资料 看了回个贴啊谢谢

探花1986

※对考研最有帮助的目前最全面的英汉翻译笔记※
第一部分：数词的译法
一、数字增减的译法：
1.句式特征：by＋名词＋比较级＋than
The wire is by three inches longer than that one.这根导线比那根长3英寸。
2.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋to+n.译为：增加到。。。。或减少到。。。。
Metal cutting machines have been decreased to 50.金属切割机已经减少到50台。
二、百分数增减的表示法与译法
1.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋％
The output value has increased 35%.产值增加了35％
2.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋by＋％
Retail salses should rise by 8%商品零售额应增加3％
The prime cost decreased by 60%.主要成本减少60％
3.句式特征：表示减少意义的动词＋to+%表示减少后剩余的数量
By using this new-process the loss of metal was reduced to 20%.采用这种新工艺，铁的损失量减少到20％
4.句式特征：％＋ 比较级 ＋than表示净增减的数量
Retail sales are expected to be nine percent higher than last year.今年零售额与去年相比，有望增加9％。
5.句式特征：％ ＋ 比较级 ＋ 名词表示净减数
The new-type machine wasted 10 percent engergy supplied. 新型机械能耗量净减10％
6.句式特征：a + % + increase表示净增数
There is a 20% increase of steel as compared with last year.与去年相比，今年钢产量净增20％
7.句式特征：％+ (of) 名词（代词）表示净减数，数字n照译
The production cost is about 60 percent that of last year.今年产值仅为去年的60％
8.句式特征：%＋up on 或over表示净增数
The grain output of last year in this province was 20% percent up on that of 1978.去年粮食产量比1978年净增20％。
第二部分 倍数增加的表示法及译法
汉语表示“增加了几倍”时，英语的倍数表示倍数需减一，译成“增加了n-1倍”以表示净增加数。如果译成“增加到n倍”或“为原来的n倍”，则照译不误。
1.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋n times“表示成倍地增长，译成”增加到N倍“或”增加n-1倍“
注：1倍 once; 2倍twice（或double）；3倍thrice（或three times）
2.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ｂｙ＋ n times，该句式与上述相同
3.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋to＋ n times表示增加到N倍，译成”增加了n-1倍“
4.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋by a factor of ＋ n times
5.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋比较级＋by a factor of ＋ n times表示增加以后达到的倍数，译成”比。。。。。。大（长、宽。。。）N-1倍“
6.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ n times＋比较级＋than。。。。。
7.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ n times +adj./adv. +as....
8.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋a ＋ n times(或n-fold) ＋increase.......表示增加到N倍，译成”增加了N－1倍“
9.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋as + adj./adv.+ again as.....译成”比。。。。大（长、宽。。。。倍）“
例子： Line A is as long again as line B. A线比B线长1倍。
This machine turns half as fast again as that one.这台机器转动比那台机器快半倍。
10.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋half as + adj./adv.+ again as.....译成”比。。。。大（长、宽。。。。半倍）“
11. 句式特点：用double表示倍数，译成”等于.....的2倍“或”增加了1倍“
12.句式特点：用treble表示倍数增加，译成”增加到3倍“或”增加了2倍“
13.句式特点：用quadruple表示倍数增加，译成”增加到4倍“或”增加了3倍“
第二部分 倍数增加的表示法及译法
汉语表示“增加了几倍”时，英语的倍数表示倍数需减一，译成“增加了n-1倍”以表示净增加数。如果译成“增加到n倍”或“为原来的n倍”，则照译不误。
1.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋n times“表示成倍地增长，译成”增加到N倍“或”增加n-1倍“
注：1倍 once; 2倍twice（或double）；3倍thrice（或three times）
2.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ｂｙ＋ n times，该句式与上述相同
3.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋to＋ n times表示增加到N倍，译成”增加了n-1倍“
4.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋by a factor of ＋ n times
5.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋比较级＋by a factor of ＋ n times表示增加以后达到的倍数，译成”比。。。。。。大（长、宽。。。）N-1倍“
6.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ n times＋比较级＋than。。。。。
7.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋ n times +adj./adv. +as....
8.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋a ＋ n times(或n-fold) ＋increase.......表示增加到N倍，译成”增加了N－1倍“
9.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋as + adj./adv.+ again as.....译成”比。。。。大（长、宽。。。。倍）“
例子： Line A is as long again as line B. A线比B线长1倍。
This machine turns half as fast again as that one.这台机器转动比那台机器快半倍。
10.句式特点：表示增加意义的动词＋half as + adj./adv.+ again as.....译成”比。。。。大（长、宽。。。。半倍）“
11. 句式特点：用double表示倍数，译成”等于.....的2倍“或”增加了1倍“
12.句式特点：用treble表示倍数增加，译成”增加到3倍“或”增加了2倍“
13.句式特点：用quadruple表示倍数增加，译成”增加到4倍“或”增加了3倍“
英语倍数句型及其译法
英语表示倍数增减或倍数对比的句型多种多样，其中有 一些（如下文中的句型②、⑤、⑥、⑧、（12） 等， 见圈码）很容易译错——其主要原因在于：英汉两语在
表述或对比倍数方面存在着语言与思维差异。现将常 用的英语倍数句型及其正确译法归纳如下：
倍数增加
(一) A is n times as great（long，much，…）as B.（①）
A is n times greater （longer， more，…）than B.（②）
A is n times the size （length， amount，…）of B.(③)
以上三句都应译为；A的大小（长度，数量，……）是B的n倍[或A比B大（长，多，……）n-1倍].
Eg. This book is three times as long as （three times longer than，three
times the length of ）that one.
这本书的篇幅是那本书的3倍（即长两倍）。
注：当相比的对象B很明显时，than（as，of）B常被省去。
（二）increase to n times（④）
increase n times／n-fold（⑤）
increase by n times（⑥）
increase by a factor of n（⑦）
以上四式均应译为：增加到n倍（或：增加n-1倍）。
Eg. The production of integrated circuits has been increased to three times
as compared with last year.
集成电路的产量比去年增加了两倍。

Eg. The output of chemical fertilizer has been raised five times as against
l986．
化肥产量比1986年增加了4倍。

Eg. That can increase metabolic rates by two or three times.
那可使代谢率提高到原来的2倍或3倍（即提高1倍或2倍）。

Eg. The drain voltage has been increased by a factor of four.
漏电压增加了3借（即增加到原来的4倍）。
注：在这类句型中increase常被raise，grow，go/step up，multiply等词所替代。
（三）There is a n-fold increase/growth…（⑧）
应译为：增加n-倍（或增至n倍）。这个句型还有其它一些形式：
Eg. A record high increase in value of four times was reported.
据报道,价值破记录地增长了3倍。
（四）double (增加1倍），treble（增加2倍），quadruple（增加3倍）。(⑨)
Eg. The efficiency of the machines has been more than trebled or quadrupled．
这些机器的效率已提高了2倍或3倍多。
（五）此外，英语中还有一种用again而不用倍数词来比较倍数的方法，如：
A is as much （large，long，…）again as B.（= A is twice as much （large，long，…）as
B.（⑩）
应译为：A比B多（大，长，……）1倍。
A is half as much （large， 1ong，…)again as B.
【= A is one and a half times as much （large， 1ong，…）as B.】（11）
应译为:A比B多（大，长……）一半（即A是B的一倍半）。
倍数减少
（一）A is n times as small （light，slow，…）as B.（12）
A is n times smaller （lighter， slower，…) than B.（13）
以上两句均应译为：A的大小（重量，速度，……）是B的1/n[或A比B小（轻，慢，……）（n-1）/n]。
Eg. The hydrogen atom is near1y l6 times as light as the oxygen atom.
氢原子的重量约为氧原子的1/16（即比氧原子约轻15/16）。
Eg. This sort of membrane is twice thinner than ordinary paper.
这种薄膜比普通纸张要薄一半（即是普通纸厚度的1/2）。
注：当相比的对象B很明显时，than/as B常被省去。
（二）decrease n times/n--fold （14）
decrease by n times（15）
decrease by a factor of n（16）
以上三式均译为：减少到1/n[或：减少(n-1)/n]。
decrease常被reduce， shorten， go／slow down等词替代。
Eg. Switching time of the new-type transistor is shortened 3 times.
新型晶体管的开关时间缩短了1/3（即缩短到2/3）。
Eg. When the voltage is stepped up by ten times， the strength of the current
is stepped down by ten times.
电压升高9倍，电流强度便降低9/10（即90％）。
Eg. The equipment reduced the error probability by a factor of 5.
该设备误差概率降低了4/5。

（三）There is a n-fold decrease/reduction…
应译为：减至1/n [或：减少（n一1）/n]。（17）
这个句型还有其它一些形式，

Eg. A rapid decrease by a factor of 7 was observed．
发现迅速减少到1/7。

Eg. The principal advantage of the products is a two-fold reduction in
weight.
这些产品的主要优点是重量减轻了1/2。

从上列倍数增减句型及其译法中不难看出：与汉语不 同的是，英语在表述或比较倍数时，无论使用什么句 型（除了不含倍数词的again句型外）都包括基础倍
数在内，因此都不是净增或净减n倍，而是净增或 净减n-1倍。所以句型⑤、③表示的倍数增量=句型④； 句型(13)表示的倍数比差＝句型12，且decrease（by）
3 times应译为“减少2/3”，而不是“减少3/4”。
英语倍数句型及其译法

英语表示倍数增减或倍数对比的句型多种多样，其中有 一些（如下文中的句型②、⑤、⑥、⑧、（12） 等， 见圈码）很容易译错——其主要原因在于：英汉两语在
表述或对比倍数方面存在着语言与思维差异。现将常 用的英语倍数句型及其正确译法归纳如下：
倍数增加

(一) A is n times as great（long，much，…）as B.（①）

A is n times greater （longer， more，…）than B.（②）

A is n times the size （length， amount，…）of B.(③)

以上三句都应译为；A的大小（长度，数量，……）是B的n倍[或A比B大（长，多，……）n-1倍].

Eg. This book is three times as long as （three times longer than，three
times the length of ）that one.
这本书的篇幅是那本书的3倍（即长两倍）。

注：当相比的对象B很明显时，than（as，of）B常被省去。

（二）increase to n times（④）

increase n times／n-fold（⑤）

increase by n times（⑥）

increase by a factor of n（⑦）

以上四式均应译为：增加到n倍（或：增加n-1倍）。

Eg. The production of integrated circuits has been increased to three times
as compared with last year.
集成电路的产量比去年增加了两倍。

Eg. The output of chemical fertilizer has been raised five times as against
l986．
化肥产量比1986年增加了4倍。

Eg. That can increase metabolic rates by two or three times.
那可使代谢率提高到原来的2倍或3倍（即提高1倍或2倍）。

Eg. The drain voltage has been increased by a factor of four.
漏电压增加了3借（即增加到原来的4倍）。

注：在这类句型中increase常被raise，grow，go/step up，multiply等词所替代。

（三）There is a n-fold increase/growth…（⑧）

应译为：增加n-倍（或增至n倍）。这个句型还有其它一些形式：

Eg. A record high increase in value of four times was reported.
据报道,价值破记录地增长了3倍。

（四）double (增加1倍），treble（增加2倍），quadruple（增加3倍）。(⑨)

Eg. The efficiency of the machines has been more than trebled or quadrupled．
这些机器的效率已提高了2倍或3倍多。

（五）此外，英语中还有一种用again而不用倍数词来比较倍数的方法，如：

A is as much （large，long，…）again as B.（= A is twice as much （large，long，…）as
B.（⑩）
应译为：A比B多（大，长，……）1倍。

A is half as much （large， 1ong，…)again as B.
【= A is one and a half times as much （large， 1ong，…）as B.】（11）
应译为:A比B多（大，长……）一半（即A是B的一倍半）。


倍数减少

（一）A is n times as small （light，slow，…）as B.（12）

A is n times smaller （lighter， slower，…) than B.（13）

以上两句均应译为：A的大小（重量，速度，……）是B的1/n[或A比B小（轻，慢，……）（n-1）/n]。

Eg. The hydrogen atom is near1y l6 times as light as the oxygen atom.
氢原子的重量约为氧原子的1/16（即比氧原子约轻15/16）。

Eg. This sort of membrane is twice thinner than ordinary paper.
这种薄膜比普通纸张要薄一半（即是普通纸厚度的1/2）。

注：当相比的对象B很明显时，than/as B常被省去。

（二）decrease n times/n--fold （14）

decrease by n times（15）

decrease by a factor of n（16）

以上三式均译为：减少到1/n[或：减少(n-1)/n]。
decrease常被reduce， shorten， go／slow down等词替代。

Eg. Switching time of the new-type transistor is shortened 3 times.
新型晶体管的开关时间缩短了1/3（即缩短到2/3）。

Eg. When the voltage is stepped up by ten times， the strength of the current
is stepped down by ten times.
电压升高9倍，电流强度便降低9/10（即90％）。

Eg. The equipment reduced the error probability by a factor of 5.
该设备误差概率降低了4/5。

（三）There is a n-fold decrease/reduction…
应译为：减至1/n [或：减少（n一1）/n]。（17）
这个句型还有其它一些形式，

Eg. A rapid decrease by a factor of 7 was observed．
发现迅速减少到1/7。

Eg. The principal advantage of the products is a two-fold reduction in
weight.
这些产品的主要优点是重量减轻了1/2。

从上列倍数增减句型及其译法中不难看出：与汉语不 同的是，英语在表述或比较倍数时，无论使用什么句 型（除了不含倍数词的again句型外）都包括基础倍
数在内，因此都不是净增或净减n倍，而是净增或 净减n-1倍。所以句型⑤、③表示的倍数增量=句型④； 句型(13)表示的倍数比差＝句型12，且decrease（by）
3 times应译为“减少2/3”，而不是“减少3/4”。
第四部分 动词的使动用法
动词是英语中词类中最为活跃的成分，至今对于动词的使用我一直是胆战心惊的，现介绍一些使动用法共勉。
1.I slowly walked my horse up the hill.我慢慢地带马上山。

2.The ran the ship aground.他们把船开到滩上去了。

3.The swam their horses in the river.他们使马泅水渡河。

4.I laid myself down to rest my wearied limbs.我躺下来好让疲惫的腿休息一下。

5.They rode out the storm.他们安然渡过风暴
其实，研究动词个人认为，要把握后面有无宾语；宾语是人还是物；是什么样的宾语。欢迎网友探讨，动词的学习研讨方法。

第五部分 同系宾语
1. I dreamed a strange dream.
2.He slept the sleep that knows no waking.
3.I have fought a good fight.
一、在同系宾语上附有修饰形容词时，通常可换成态度副词。
live a long life = live long;
live a happy life = live happily;
die a national death = die nationally;
die a violent death = die by violence
二、有的宾语与动词不同语源，但意义相通，也可以视为同类。
run a race; run a course; run one's career;
fight a battle; blow a gale; strike a blow;
ring a peal; wreak one's vengeance
三、以it构成的类型：
I am determined to fight it out。我决心奋斗到底。
He is starring it in the provinces.他到各地巡回演出。
We had to walk it in the rain.我们不得不冒雨而行。
Can't you swim it?你游不过去吗？
四、在某些熟语中可将同系宾语省略，如look thanks = look a look of thanks
He looked the thanks he could not express.他眼中现出言语无法表达的感谢。
She left the room, looking daggers at me.她以短剑相刺的目光望着我，走出了房间。
五、最高级形容词后，可以省略同系宾语。
The lady was looking her best(look).
She sang her sweest(song) to please him.

第六部分 一组词组
1.all＋抽象名词/抽象名词＋itself ＝ very + adj.
He was all gentleness to her.他对她非常温存。
To his superiors, he is humility itself。对于长辈，他极为谦逊。
分析：该结构原来是表示某种性质达到极点的一种说法，有“非常”、“尽管”、“一味”、“尽”的含义，有时甚至可以译为“。。。。的化身”、“。。。。的具体化”。普通复数名词用于“all”之后，也是表达这种概念。
He is all smiles.他一味地笑。
She is all eyes.她盯着看。
I am all anxiety.我真担心。
He is all attention.他全神贯注地听着。
2.Something (much) of / nothing (little) of
Mr.Li is something of a philospher.李先生略具哲学家风范。
Mr. Wu is nothing of a musician.吴先生全无音乐家的风味。
Mr. Lu is very much of a poet.陆先生大有诗人气派。
Mr.Liu is little of a scholar.刘先生几无学者风度。
分析：此为表示“程度”的形容词短语，有时可以当作副词翻译。
Something of ＝to some extent（某程度），在问句和条件句中则用anyting of（略有、多少）。nothing of译作“全无、毫无”。

相类似的情况：
to be something of = to have something of + 名词＋in ＋代名词
He is nothing in ability of an orator = He has nothing of an orator in his ability.他毫无演说家的才能。

这类名词的用法，可以处理为副词。
He has seen something of life.他略具阅历。他稍阅世。


Something of 与something like区别：程度上有差异。
something like ＝ something approximateing in character or amount指数量或性质略同的事物，又作somewhat(似乎、略微)解释。
This is something like a pudding.此物略似布丁。
It shaped something like a cigar.其形状略似雪茄。

3.as...as 的三种用法;
（1）He is as kind as his sister.他象他妹妹一样和蔼。
（2）He is as kind as honest.他既诚实又和蔼。
（3）He ia as kind as his sister is honest.他妹妹诚实，而他和蔼。
句式1表示两个不同的人相同的性质；
句式2表示同一个人不同的性质；
句式3表示两个人的不同性质。该句式中第一个as为之时副词，第二个as为连词。所以，第一个as后面为adj./adv.，而第二个as后面为从句。

4.as......as any / as .....as ever
He is as great a statesman as any = He is as great a statesman as ever lived.他是一位稀有的政治家。

5.as.....as.....can be
It is as plain as plain can be （may be）.那是再明白不过了。
A lot of these boys were green as green can be.这些男孩许多都是精力充沛无以复加的。

6.as......., so............
As rust eats iron, so care eats the heart.忧能伤人，犹如锈之蚀铁。
SO相当于in the same proportion; in like manner; in the same way(亦复如此)。为加强语气，也可以在as前面加上just一词。
As fire tries gold, so does adversity try courage.正如火能试金，逆境可以试人的勇气。
As the human body is nourished by the food, so is a nation nourished by its industries.正像身体要靠食物营养一样，国家要靠工业营养。
7.It is in (or with)........as in (or with)......
It is in life as in a journey.人生好比旅途。
It is in studying as in eating; he who does it gets the benefits, and not he who sees it done.读书和吃饭一样，得到利益的是那些实际在吃的人，而不是旁观的人。
It is in mind as in body which must be nourished by good food.精神和身体都必须有好的食物来营养。
8.as good as / as well as
It is as goos as done.这就和做好了一样。
It is broad as well as long.那既长且宽。
as good as 有两个含义：
（1）amounting to ; not falling short of;等于；同样； 几如；； 不欠缺
He was as good as his word.他不爽约。
（2）virtually; essentially; in every essential respect实际上；其实；实在；在各要点上
He is as good as dead already.宛如死人；行尸走肉；名存实亡
as well as 有四个含义：
（1）no less than; equally with等于；不下于；亦；一样好
I have understanding as well as you.
（2）both....and..;one equally with the other“与”、“两者皆”
Work in moderation is healthy as well as agreeable to the human constitution.适度劳动对身体给予快感，又有益卫生。
（3）与not only....but also有连带关系
He has experience as well as knowledge.= He has not only knowledge but also experience.

（4）可以代替better than
As well (= better) be hanged for a sheep as ( = than) for a lamb.窃钩如窃国，与其盗小羊。

9.As it is
其含义为：as it stands; to state the matter as it really stands; as a matter of fact; in reality.相当于：实际上；就实际情况而言；根据（现在）情况看；就现在这个样子等等。它用来指事物的单数；即指前面的单数名词。如果指事物的复数，则用“As they are”。如果用来指人时，则为as I am / you are / she/ he is/ we are / they are.as it is 的过去式为as it was。其位置可以放在句首，句末或句子中间。
（1）用于句首，注意前后时态与该结构保持一致
As it is, we can not help him.
As it was, we could not help him.
（2）用于句末
Let's keep it as it is.
You mustn't go to the ball as you are.你不能这样去参加舞会。
有时it可以省略为“as is ”，意即：照现在的样子，常指“不再修理或改进”等情况。
He has an old radio as is.他有一台没有修理过的旧收音机。
I‘ll sell it to you as is, but don't complain if it doesn't work.
（3）句中时，用逗号把它从前后隔开
A.虚拟语气句式＋but ＋as it is / was，该结构意为：其实；事实上
I thought things would get better, but as it is, they are getting worse and worse.
The rice could have been got in yesterdy if the weather had been fine, but as it was, it had to be left in the fields.
B.过去分词＋as it is，表示强调前面的过去分词
Written as it is in an interesting way, this book is enjoyable to young and old alike.
Published as it was at such a time, his work attrached much attention.
C.现在分词＋ as it does(did)。意为：因为这样，（实际）所以.........
Living as he does in Shanghai, he knows the place extremely well.
Reading as he did many times, he could recite it fluently.

几个类似的结构：
A. as it stands 根据目前情况来看
As it stands, it is certain that our country can realize the four modernization ahead of schedule.
B. such as it is不怎么样，质量不过如此
The room, such as it is, is very bright.
C. as it were ＝as if it were so.属虚拟语气，用于插入语。不可以与as it is 混淆
He is , as it were, a living dictionary.
Comrade Lei Feng still lives, as it were , in our heart.
10.have + the + 抽象名词 ＋不定式
I had the fortune to succeed.我很幸运获得了成功。
have = possess原来指肉体和精神上的特征，现作为一种天赋而具有的。
She had the cheek ( = impudence) to say such a thing. = She was so impudent as to say such a thing.她厚颜无耻地说出这样的话。
How can you have the heart ( = hard-heartness) to drown such darling little kittens?
你何忍心把如此可爱的小猫淹死？

11.名词＋of +a +名词
It was a great moutain of a wave.波浪如山高。
That fool of a Tom did it. 这是汤姆那个笨蛋做的。
That old cripple of a Henn.那个年老的残废者亨。
It would make the deuce of a scandal.这会弄得声名狼藉的。
of前后的名词指同一人或物体。其中的“名词＋of”后出现的名词前面，必须有一个不定词，即使是固有名词，该冠词也不可省略。
a devil of a man = a devish man
a rascal of a fellow = a rascally fellow


12. in +人
They have an enemy in him.他才是他们的敌人。
分析：in = in the person of （在那人身上），表示一个人身上具有的性质、资格、能力等。原来是由于形状（与形状有关的in，如：in a circle; in print; in a heap; in couples; in human shape; in ruins等）所转来的，而有“即....是也”、“就是”的含义。这种in多出现在find, see, behold, lose等动词后面。
He had something of the hero in him.
China lost a great artist in (the death of ) Chi Paishi.

13.short of / be short of / nothing short of
short=except，是副词的用法。在前面可以使用的动词有：come, fall, run等，表示“不足”、“缺乏”的意思，其中“of”做“from”解释。至于be short of 与nothing short of 中的“short of”则为形容词。be short of 表示“不足”或“离开”；nothing short of表示“完全”。
1）Short of theft, I will do anything I can for you.
2)We are short of hands at present.
3)His conduct was nothing short of madness.他的行为简直发了狂。

14.anything but / nothing but / all but
在英文中anything but＝never;意即“除此之外，别的都是”，是表示强调的否定；
nothing but=only; 意即“除此之外，别的都不是”；
all but=almost; nearly
三种用法中，but都有“except”含义

15.much more / much less
He likes a child, much more a baby.他喜欢小孩，更加喜欢婴孩。
He doesn't like a child, much less a baby.他步喜欢小孩，更加不喜欢婴孩。
解释：
much more 用于肯定句之后，表示程度增加；表示更多，much可以改为still
much less用于否定句之后，表示程度减少；表示更少，可译为“何况”、“还论”

16.more........than.......can“达到不可能的程度”
morethan................can"简直不可能"
He earns more money than he can spend.

17.more than + 动词，译为“深为， 十二分的”
This more than satisfied me.这使我十二分的满意。
More is meant than meets the ear.有言外之意。
What we lose in flowers we more than gain in fruits.

18.less.......than
During the week he saw less of her than usual.在那一个星期内，他比平常要少见到她。
less.......than“较少”、“较差”、“不及”、“不如”。该less做形容词时好翻译，做副词解释时难译。
Proof-reading is not interesting, still less so when it is one's own work.
Proof-reading is uninteresting, still more so when it is one's own work.
His lecture left me less than satisfactory.他的演讲怎么也不能使我满意。
He observed with interest the errors of her face and figure, the thin underlip, too heavily penciled eyebrows, and her legs less than slim although not actually skinny.
他感兴趣地望着她面孔和身体上的一些缺点，那太薄的下唇，画的太浓的眉毛和她那瘦弱的双腿，虽然还没有达到皮包骨头的程度。
19.the + 比较级＋理由
I like him all the better for his faults.因为他有缺点，所以我更加喜欢他。
连接“理由”部分的可以为：for, because, on account of , owing to 等，前面部分常常出现的结构为：all(much)the + 比较级。该结构中的the = to that degree.

20.what he is / what he has
We honour him for what he is , not for what he has.
我们尊敬的是他的人品，而不是他的财富。
what he is ＝his character
what he has = his property
It is not a question how much a man knows, but use what he can make of what he knows; not a question of what he has acquired, and how he has been trained, but of what he is, and what he can do.
问题不在于一个人知道多少，而在于他能否运用他的知识；问题不在于他所学为何，受过怎样的教育，而在于他的人品，以及他的能力。

21.what + 名词 / what + little + 名词
He gave me what money he had about him.他把他身上所有的钱都给了我。
I gave him what little mony I had.我竭尽绵薄之力将仅有的钱都给了他。
what + 名词 含有“all the ....that”或“that....which”含义。译为“所有的。。。。”，what做关系代名词。
what + little（few等一类词） + 名词 含有“虽少但全部”或“所仅有的”
She saved what little money she could out of her slim salary to help her brother go to school.
22.what with........and what with / what by ...... and what by
What with illness and what with losses, he is almost ruined.半因为生病，半因为亏损，他几乎整个儿毁了。
What by brikes and what by extortions, he made money.
或由受贿，或由勒索，他发财了。
此为what的副词用法，可译为“多少（＝somewhat）”、“半（＝patrly）”
what with........and what with表示“原因”
what by ...... and what by表示“手段”
What with overwork and under-nourishment he fell ill.
由于过劳，加上营养不足，他终于病倒了。


23.if any
1)He despises honour, if any one does.世界上真有人轻视荣誉的话，他便是一个。
2）He has little, if any, money.他即令有钱，也是极少的。
if any , if ever 意思是“果真有，即令有的话”，相当于if there is (are) any at all.。它通常是伴随有little, few, seldom等准否定词。与此相近的用法还有if anything，意思是“if at all”或“if there is any difference”,可以译为“倘若有异同，如果稍有区别的话”。还有“if a day”意思是“at least”。
There is little , if any , hope.希望甚微。
It occurs seldom, if ever( = seldom or never).真有其事，也不常发生。
If anything, he is a little better today.如有什么不同，他比昨天好了一点。
The greatness has little, if anything, to do with rank or power.真正的伟大是和权力与地位毫无关系的。

下面的内容虽然与帖子的名称不太相符，但是作为构成句式的基本单元------词汇，也是不容忽视的啊。
学习过程中收集、整理了不少令我疑惑的词汇（词组），曾经在OE网站张贴，现把精华部分粘贴于此，希望大家对我的理解提出批评和指正。

“闪光”之说：
1、shine: 照耀，指光稳定发射；

2、glitter: 闪光，指光不稳定发射；

3、glare: 耀眼，表示光的强度最大；

4、sparkle:闪烁，指发射微细的光度。
打破”之说：
1、break: 一般用语，经打击或施加压力而破碎；

2、crack:出现了裂缝，但还没有变成碎片；

3、crush: 指从外面用力向内或从上向下压而致碎；

4、demolish: 破坏，铲平或削平（如土壤，建筑物，城堡等）；

5、destroy: 在肉体上、精神上或道义上彻底摧毁，使之无法复原；

6、shatter:突然使一个物体粉碎；

7、smash: 指由于突如其来的一阵暴力带一声响而彻底粉碎。


有关“死”之说：
1、去世，与世长辞：to pass away;

2、寿终： to close (end) one's day;

3、咽气，断气： to breathe one's last;

4、归西： to go west;

5、了解尘缘： to pay the debt of nature;

6、命归黄泉： to depart to the world of shadows;

7、见阎王： to give up the gost;

8、翘辫子： to kick the bucket;

9、蹬腿： to kick up one's heels;

10、不吃饭： to lay down one's knife and fork.


有关"怀孕"（pregnant）之说：
1、she is having baby;

2、she is expecting;

3、she is in a family way;

4、she is in a deliacate condition;

5、she is in an interesting condition;

6、she is knitting little booties.



"broken"涵义种种：

1、a broken man: 一个绝望的人；

2、a broken soldier: 一个残废的军人；

3、broken money: 零花钱；

4、a broken promise: 背弃的诺言；

5、broken English: 蹩脚的英语；

6、a broken spirit: 消沉的意志；

7、a broken heart: 破碎的心。



准确理解“kill”（后面附词义）:

1、he killed the man.杀；

2、he killed the dog,宰；

3、he killed time down at the park,消磨；

4、he killed his chance of success,断送；

5、he killed the motion when it came from the committee,否决；

6、he killed himself by overwork,致死；

7、he killed the spirit of the group,抹杀；

8、he killed three bottles of whiskey in a week,喝光；

9、kill the peace,扼杀；

10、kill the friendship,终止；

11、kill a marriage,解除。




“声誉”种种：

1、fame:褒义，指关于一个人的人格、行为、才能等方面的优点；

2、reputation和repute差不多，可褒义可贬义，指对人或物的评价、看法，词义较窄；

3、distinction，褒义，指因职衔、地位或人格所造成的，通常包含“优越于人，与众不同”；

4、renown，褒义，指显赫的声誉或应该得到的荣誉；

5、notoriety，贬义，与fame相对应。


“空空如也”：

1、hollow，表示“空洞的，虚的，不实的，下陷的‘，可以和tree, voice, sound, cheeks等连用；

2、vacant，表示”没人占用的，出缺的“，常和position, room, house, seat等连用；

3、empty，表示”空的，一无所有的“，可以和house, room, cup, box, stomatch, head, words等连用.



你能理解”or“吗？

1、连接两个对等的事物或人，可译为”或“，”或者“；

2、前后为同一个事物时，应译为”即“，”或称“，”或作“
The exact mechanism of Yutin, or vitamin P as is sometimes called, on the capillary wall is not understood.
附译文：路丁，即有时所称的维生素P，其对毛细血管壁的确切作用（机理）还不了解。

3、连接两组数字，代表不同单位的同一数量时，一般译为”合“，”等于“；
Normal temperature in man is 98.6F or 37C(遗憾的时表温度上标我不会)。

4、从or中导致方面结果时，应译为”否则“；
Hurry up, or you will be late.

5、”or so “左右；"or more"以上；"or rather"甚至

general"涵义种种：

1、全身麻醉 general anesthesia
2、普查，集体检查 general check-up
3、一般健康情况 general health condition
4、综合性医院 general hospital
5、总路线 genegral line
6、大纲 general outline
7、弥漫性腹膜炎 general peritonitis
8、普通医师 general practitioner
9、总查（病）房 general purpose
10、秘书长 general secretary



你能“定”下来吗？

1、set a date: 决定日期
2、set an example：树立榜样
3、set fruit：结果子
4、set a fire： 点火
5、set a severed limb：断肢再接
6、set sail：开航，起航
7、set the camera lens：调整（相机）镜头
8、set a pen to paper:：动笔，下笔
9、set a new task：提出新任务
10、set down all items：记下所有项目
11、set oneself to learn from：决心向。。。学习


你知道这有多”重“？

1、heavy applause：热烈的鼓掌
2、heavy gait：沉重的步态
3、heavy chemicals大量生产的化学药品
4、heavy sea 波涛汹涌的海面
5、heavy sleep：熟睡
6、heavy smoker：烟瘾大的人
7、heavy current：强电流
8、heavy eater：食量大的人
9、heavy task：繁重的任务
10、heavy food：油腻而难消化的食物
11、heavy traffic:拥挤的交通
12、heavy weather：恶劣的天气
13、heavy road：泥泞的路
14、heavy rain：大雨
15、heavy clouds：厚云
16、heavy crops：丰收
17、heavy frost：浓霜
18、heavy wine：烈酒
19、heavy news：悲痛的消息
20、heavy heart：忧愁的心
21、heavy fire：猛烈的炮火
22、heavy bread：没有发酵好的面包
23、heavy wire：粗线
24、heavy load：重载
25、heavy storm：暴风雨
26、heavy reader:沉闷冗长的读物


“强度”怎么说？
1、intensity:指强烈的程度，多用于磁、电、热、光、声、火、劳动等抽象或非（易于触摸到的）实体。
例：colour intensity intensity of light

2、strength:指坚强的程度，用于可触摸到的具体实物抗拒能力的大小。
strength of cement(水泥标号) engine strength
working strength


你打牢“基础”了吗？

1、base：指有形、具体的基础、基地。
base line 基线 base plate 底座
cotton base 产棉区 data base 数据库
paint base 底漆 raw material base 原料基地

2、basic：基本的，碱性的
basic Bessemer steel 底吹碱性转炉钢
basic hole 基孔 basic industry 基础工业
basic material 碱性材料

3、basis：无形、抽象的基础、根据
econimic basis 经济基础
hole basis 基孔制
scientific basis 科学根据

4、foundation：指大厦建筑物的地基，引申为“根据”
foundation bolt 地脚螺栓
material foundation of society社会物质基础
reinforced concrete foundation钢筋混凝土基础
The rumour has no foundation这传闻毫无根据


你了解这些“组织”吗？

1、construction：指“构造”（将零部件装配，组合在一起成为整体的方式）；“结构”（各组成部分的搭配和排列，建筑物上承担重力部分的构造）
aircraft construction飞机构造
welded construction焊接结构
This machine is simple in construction这种机器构造简单
body construction车身（机身、弹体）构造
capital construction基本建设
physical construction机械构造
prefabricated construction预制构造
ships of similiar construction结构类似的船

2、structure：“结构、组织”
age structure年龄构成
atomic structure原子结构
steel stucture钢结构
shell stucture薄层结构
brick stucture砖建筑物
geological stucture地质构造
market stucture市场结构
microscopic stucture显微组织
The human body is a wonderful stucture人体是个奇妙的构造物
the stucture of a plant一种植物的构造



"charge"涵义知多少？

1、费用：service charge服务费；
2、责任：in charge of 负责；
3、装料：furnace charge炉料；
4、电荷：induced charge感应电荷；
5、装药：shaped charge锥孔炸药


再解“develop”

1、发展：
agriculture develpopment
social development
industrial develpopment
development in foreign affairs

2、开发
water-power development
oil-field development
development of natural resouerces
interllectual development

3、研制
advanced development远景产品研制，样机试制
under development
engineering development
operatinal development产品改进性研制
exploratory development探索性研制

4、开拓
ore development
lateral development水平开拓

5、展开（用于数学）
series development级数展开
development of function函数的展开

6、显影
chemical development化学显影
over development显影过度
time development定时显影


The shade meaning of "power":

【数学】乘方、幂
The sixth power of two is sixty-four.
【力学】
力：horse power
功率：rated power额定功率
【电学】
电力：power network
电源：power switch
功率：power export
【化学】
能：chemical power
本领：catalytic power催化本领
化合价：Aluminium has a conmbining power of three.
【机械】
动力：power shaft传动轴
力：brake power
【社会】
力量：knowlege is power
权力：politica power
强国：superpower



The shade meaning of "system":

【机电】
系统：electric light system电照明系统
lubricating system润滑系统
电力网：system fault电力网故障
装置：tierod-crank system连杆曲柄装置
top charging system炉顶装料装置
设备：loading system转载设备
制：basic hole(shaft) system基孔（轴）制
【数学】组：system of equations
【力学】系：system of forces
【化学】法：acid system酸法
【社会】
体系：industrial system
制度：social system
方法：a new system of teaching foreign language
The shade meaning of "work":
工作：work experience
工件：stamp work模锻工件
工厂： NO.1 Motor Vehical Works
工事：defence works
著作：new works on acupuncture针刺疗法新书
功：mechanical work
运转：The machine works well.
加工：The wood works easily.
起作用：The medicine works.
造成：work wonders(miracles)创造奇迹
The shade meaning of "sound":
【声音】sound wave
【听起来】The plan sounds reasonable.
【发音】sound every syllable!每个音节都要发音。
The ship moved slowly forward sounding as she went.航船慢速前进，一路锤测水深。
【完好的】sound metal优质金属
【牢固的】sound casting 坚实的铸件
The sahde meaning of "sound":
【圆的】round plate
【整的】a round ton
【环形】a round trip往还一次
【圆角】fillet and round内圆角和外圆角
【弹】guided round (missile)导弹
【围绕】The moon moves round the earth.
【到处】show sb round
【使圆】round the corners
【舍入】3.14159 rounded to four decimals becomes 3.1416
废物"之说：
1、litter：并不是真正意义上的废物，而是用后散置的“杂物”，相当于odds and ends，或索性说是残余物（leavings）
Always pick up your litter after a picnic.
2、waste：真正的废物，美国人常用trash,此字还有“残屑”、或“垃圾”之意。
垃圾篓美国人用trash can；英国用dustbin.美国人把南方的穷苦白人叫the (poor) white trash;可见，此词又可作“无价值的人或物”解释。
That book is mere trash.
3、rubbish：范围广，真正的废物。也可表惊叹“Rubbish(胡说！)”
英国人常说：That book is all rubbish.
4、厨房残屑:kitchen refuse或refuse：此词做废物或无用之物讲，但一般指固体废物，不指可排泄的垃圾。
5、到垃圾的地方：a dumping ground; a dumping-place for rubbish; a rubbish dump.
6、junk:垃圾、废物。原意是“破烂货”。
His writing is all junk.
7、废人、社会渣滓：human waste; debris; dregs of population; off-scourings of humanity; dross of mankind; hobo
He is now a "has-been"(他现成了废物)＝He outlived his usefulness.
Commitment译法:
动词commit在字典中涵义：
1、 犯、行、作：commit a crime; commit a blunder; commit murder; commit suicide
2、 委托、付诸：commit some funds to the care of trustees(委托资金与保管委员会)；commit a bill(议会将议案交付委员审查)；commit thoughts to writing(将想法写出来)；commit something to memory(暗记某事)；
3、 承担：If you agreed to give a number of lectures, help to pay your brother’s school expenses, and give $ 500 a year for clothes, you have quite a lot of commitments.
4、 (束缚身体之意转为)牵累，陷入，献身：Do not commit yourself(勿自限累)；commit oneself to a promise;
例析：
1、 In the last decade, however, we have sought to fulfill the goal with greater zeal, greater commitment, and greater success than at any period in our history.
在过去十年中，我们比历史上任何时期都力求更加热心地、更加献身地、更加成功地来达到这个目标(献身)。
2、（李光耀对新加坡人的定义）A Singaporean is a person who feels committed to upholding society as it is—multi-racial, tolerant, accommodating, forward-looking---and who is prepared to stake his life for the community.
一个新加坡人就是一个对现存的多元种族、容忍互助而又高瞻远瞩的社会，以献身精神来支持它，并装备为它付出生命的人（献身的）。
3、I believe that both candidates should make it absolutely clear that they share a basic commitment to the success of the negotiations now taking place in Paris.
我相信两党的总统候选人，都应绝对明确地表示，他们对于促成现在巴黎举行的商谈成功，具有基本的言语约束（言约）。
4、 he second imperative of our policy for peace is that we must meet our commitment and keep our promises to use our strength to oppose aggression.
我们和平政策的第二条诫命，就是我们必须尽我们的义务，守住我们的诺言，竭尽所能，反抗侵略(诺言)。
5、 Vietnam may be a bitter hoax or it may be a major commitment in the defense of freedom, but it will go away because we yell “foul”; it will not fade because we blow retreat.
越南可能是一种痛苦的玩笑，也可能是在保卫自由中的一个大的牵累，它不会因为我们大叫讨厌而走开，也不会因为我们鸣金收兵而消失（牵累）
6、 The report said that new commitments of US$50.7 million during fiscal year 1968 raised total investments of the International Finance Corporation in private enterprises in its member countries to US$271.8 million in 39 countries.
1968年会计年度新的投资计有5070万美元，使得国际金融公司在其他会员国的私人企业总投资，39个国家共达27180万美元（投资）。
7、 The Japanese have faithfully observed their commitments.日本人忠实地遵守了投降条件（条件）。
其他：
an all-around commitment（全面的约束）
to give a precipitate commitment(给以轻率的

保险种种：

accident insurance意外保险
accident death insurance意外死亡保险
accounts receivable insurance应收帐款保险
additional insurance加保
agricultural insurance农业保险
air transport insurance空运保险
air transportation cargo insurance空运货物保险
aircraft hull insurance飞机机身保险
aircraft passenger insurance飞机乘客保险
all risks insurance综合保险
annuity insurance年金保险
automobile insurance汽车保险
aviation insurance航空保险
aviation liability insurance航空责任保险
aviation personal accident insurance航空人身意外保险
bad debt insurance坏帐保险
baggage insurance行李保险
bailee's customers insurance受托人代客保险
basic insurance基本保险
blanket insurance总括保险
block insurance船舶保险
boiler explosion insurance锅炉爆炸保险
bond insurance债券保险
bonding insurance保证保险
broker insurance保险掮客
building insurance建筑物保险
burglary insurance盗窃保险
business interruption insurance业务中断保险
business liability insurance营业责任保险
capital insurance资本保险
cargo insurance货物保险
cargo marine insurance海洋货运保险
cargo transportation insurance货物运输保险
carrier's liability insurance承运人责任保险
cash messenger insurance现金运送保险
casualty insurance不幸事故保险, 灾害保险
cattle insurance家畜保险
cede insurance分保
child's insurance儿童保险
civilliability insurance民事责任保险
civil responsibility insurance责任保险
collective insurance集体保险
collective accident insurance集体灾害保险
collision insurance碰撞保险
commercial credit insurance商业信用保险
commission insurance佣金保险
compensation insurance职工赔偿保险
comprehensive insurance综合保险, 全程保险
compulsory insurance强制保险
concurrent insurance同时保险
consequential damage insurance间接损害保险
consequential loss insurance间接损失保险
consignment export insurance寄售输出保险
consignment sale export insurance寄销出口保险
consignment stock insurance寄销货物保险
continued insurance继续保险
convertible insurance转换保险
cost and insurance成本加 保险价
credit insurance信用保险
credit life insurance信用人寿保险(借款人死亡时, 应将赔偿金付给放款人)
crop insurance作物保险
damage insurance损失保险
death insurance死亡保险
deferred insurance
搁置保险
deposit insurance
存款保险
disability insurance
残废保险
disbursements insurance
船舶费用保险
domestic insurance
家计保险
domestic animal transportation insurance
家畜运输保险
double insurance
双重保险
duty insurance
关税保险
earthquake insurance
地震保险
economic policy insurance
经济政策保险
education insurance
教育保险
elevator liability insurance
电梯责任保险
employee's pension insurance
职工退休养老保险
employer's liability insurance
雇主责任保险; 职工伤害保险
employment insurance
就业保险
endowment insurance人寿定期保险, 养老保险, 储蓄保险
endowment life insurance人寿定期保险
engineering insurance工程保险
erection insurance机器安装保险
excess insurance超额保险
exchange risk insurance外汇风险保险
exhibition insurance展览保险
expected profit insurance预期利润保险
explosion insurance爆炸保险
export insurance出口保险, 输出保险
extended terms insurance延期保险
external investment principal insurance国外投资本金保险
facultative insurance临时保险
family income insurance家庭收入保险
farm insurance农业保险
fermentation insurance发酵保险
fidelity insurance职工忠诚保险
fire insurance火灾保险, 火险
fiscal insurance租税保险
fixed term insurance定期保险
flood insurance洪水保险
forced insurance强制保险
foreign exchange fluctuation insurance外汇波动保险
fraternal insurance互助救济保险
freight insurance运费保险
frost insurance霜害保险
full value insurance全值保险
general average disbursement insurance共同海损费用保险
general export insurance普通输出保险
government employee insurance公务人员保险
group insurance团体保险
group life insurance团体人身保险
guarantee insurance保证保险, 盗窃意外保险
hail insurance雹害保险
harvest insurance收获保险
hazardous insurance危险物品保险
health insurance健康保险
hire purchase credit insurance租赁信用保险
homeowner's insurance房主保险
hospitalization insurance医疗保险
hull insurance船舶保险, 运输工具保险
hypothecation insurance抵押保险
imaginary profit insurance预期利益保险
immovable insurance不动产保险
inconvertibility insurance国外投资本利不能兑换汇回保险
increased value insurance增值保险
individual accident insurance个人伤害保险
industrial insurance工业保险
inland marine insurance内陆水运保险
invalid insurance伤残保险
jewellery insurance珠宝保险
jobless insurance失业保险
joint insurance合伙保险, 联合保险
joint stock insurance合股保险业
label insurance标签保险
labour insurance劳动保险

land transit insurance
陆运保险
leasehold interest insurance
租赁权益保险
liability insurance
责任保险
life insurance
人寿保险
lighter insurance
驳运保险
livestock transit insurance
活牲畜运输保险

long life insurance
长寿保险
luggage insurance
行李保险
machinery insurance
机器保险
machinery breakdown insurance
机器损坏保险
marine insurance
海洋运输保险, 海上保险, 水险
marine cargo insurance
海运货物保险
marine hull insurance
船舶保险
maritime insurance
海洋运输保险
maternity insurance
生育保险
medical expense insurance
医疗费保险
mixed insurance
混合保险

more specific insurance最特定保险
mortality insurance死亡保险
mortgage insurance不动产抵押借款保险
motor car insurance汽车保险
motor cycle insurance摩托车保险
motor vehicle passenger insurance汽车乘客保险
movable insurance动产保险
multiple-line insurance多种类保险业务
mutual insurance相互保险
national insurance国民保险, 国家保险
national health insurance
国民健康保险
no-fault insurance
无过失保险
non-concurrent insurance
不同时保险
non-life insurance
损害保险
obligatory insurance
强制保险
ocean marine cargo insurance
海洋运输货物保险
old age insurance
老年保险
open cover cargo insurance
预约货物保险单
open policy insurance
预约保险
ordinary life insurance
普通终身寿险
overlapping insurance
重复保险
overseas insurance
海外保险
overseas travel sickness insurance
海外旅行疾病保险
own insurance
自己保险, 本身保险
paid-up insurance
保费已付足的人寿保险单
parcel post insurance
邮包保险
partial insurance
部份保险
participating insurance
由相互保险公司所出的分单保险, 其利润将来仍退给投保人
passenger insurance
旅客保险
pensions insurance
抚恤金保险
perpetual insurance
终身保险
personal insurance
人身保险
petty insurance
小额保险
plate glass insurance
玻璃保险
pluvious insurance
雨水保险, 雨淋保险
postal insurance
简易保险
power interruption insurance
电流中断保险
preliminary term insurance
初期保险, 持续保险
premium insurance
保险费
prepaid insurance
预付保险费保险
primary insurance
优先保险
product liability insurance
产品责任保险
professional liability insurance
职业责任保险
profit insurance
利润保险
property insurance
财产保险
proprietary insurance
营业保险
provisional insurance
暂时保险
public liability insurance
公众损害保险, 公共责任保险
pure endowment insurance
生存保险, 养老保险
rain insurance
雨害保险
reduced paid-up insurance
减额支付保险
registered mail insurance
挂号邮件保险
rent insurance
房租保险
replacement insurance
重置或修复保险
residence insurance
住家保险
retirement income insurance
退休收入保险
river hull insurance
内河船舶保险
river transportation insurance
内河运输保险
robbery insurance
盗劫保险
shipping insurance
船运保险
sickness insurance
疾病保险
social insurance
社会保险
specific insurance
特定保险
state insurance
国家保险
storm and tempest insurance
暴风雨保险
straight life insurance
终身保险
strike expenses insurance
罢工追加费用保险
subsidiary insurance
附属保险
supplementary insurance
追加保险
survivorship insurance
共有财产中归后死者所得的联合保险
term insurance
定期保险
theft insurance
盗窃保险
time insurance
定期保险
time hull insurance
船舶定期保险
title insurance
产权保证保险
tourist luggage insurance
旅客行李保险
transit insurance
内陆运输保险
traveller's accident insurance
旅客意外保险
trust insurance
信托保险
unemployment insurance
失业保险
unexpired insurance
未到期保险
use and occupancy insurance
固定开支保险
voluntary insurance
自愿保险
voyage insurance
航次保险
waiting insurance
停止保险
war risk insurance
战争险, 兵险
water pipe insurance
水管保险
whole life insurance
终身保险
windstorm insurance
风暴险
workmen's insurance
工人保险
workmen's compensation insurance
劳工保险
yacht insurance
游艇保险
insurance for adult
成人保险
insurance for medical care
医疗保险
insurance of export-import goods
进出口货物保险
insurance of valuables
贵重物品保险
insurance or guarantee of private loans
私人贷款保险或担保
替代词one, ones, that, those在比较结构中的用法辨析
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
在比较结构中，为了避免重复，常用替代词替代名词词组或它的中心词。可以这样用的替代词常用的且较难掌握的有one， ones，that和those。
I．替代词one和ones的用法：
1．one只能替代单数名词，one的复数形式ones只能替代复数名词。例如：
My child doesn't like this book．Show her a more interesting one．
2．替代词one或ones必须带有一个限定或修饰词，它们和所替代的名词中心词所指不一定是同一对象，这是替代词one或 ones在用法上的一个重要特征。例如：
I don't like this book．I'd like a more interesting one．
3．当替代词one或ones带有后置修饰语时，它们前面总有定冠词。例如：
Our new cassette is more expensive than the one we had before．
4．当替代词one或ones在形容词比较级、最高级以及某些限定词如this，that， which和序数词等之后，可以省略。例如：
This book is much better than that（one）．
5．替代词one或ones通常不用在物主代词和名词所有格之后。如不可说my one（s），your one（s），Peter's one（s）等等。one或 ones也不能用在own之后。
但是，如果有了形容词，one（s）可以和物主代词及名词所有格连用。如：
My cheap camera seems to be just as good as John's expensive one．
6．one作替代词时，在of前面不能用 the one来表示所属关系和类似概念。如不可说：
＊He put down his gun and picked up the one of Henry．
该用一个所有格来表示 He picked up Henry's．

7．当两个形容词表示对照的意思时，不能使用替代词 one。仅在其中一个形容词后加上名词即可。例如：
Don't praise the younger child in the presence of the elder．
8．替代词 one如果不带任何前置修饰语，即它的前面既没有限定词，又没有形容词时，便不是替代名词词组的中心词，而是替代整个名词词组。这时，one＝a＋单数名词。例如：
A cake made of wheat costs less than one made of rice．（one ＝a cake）
one的这种用法是泛指同类事物中的任何一个，相当一个不定冠词，因此它没有复数形式。要泛指复数事物，只能用some。例如：
Here are a few apples．Would you like some（＝some of them）？
II．替代词that和those的用法：
1．that和those通常用作指使代词，也可用作替代词。它们总是伴随着限定性的后置修饰语，分别等于the one和 the ones。例如：
The houses of the rich are generally larger than those of the poor．
2．that也可替代不可数名词，但是 the one则不能。例如：
The resistance of a thicker wire is less than that of a thin one．
以上两例中的that都不能换成the one。
3．that作替代词，只能指物，不能指人。those作替代词，既可指物，也可指人。例如：
The blonde girl I saw was older than the one you were dancing with．
该句中的the one不能换成that。
4．that用作替代词和它所替代的名词词组的中心词的“数”可以不一致。替代单数名词时，只替代“the ＋单数名词”，不可替代“a＋单数名词”。例如：
The song by Schubert is more tuneful than that by Britain．（that＝the song。song为可数名词。）
请注意，这里说的that只替代“the ＋单数名词”，不可替代“a＋单数名词，系指that在句子中实际的作用，并非要求它在句子中所代表的前面出现的词组必须是“the ＋单数名词。例如：
In those days they lived a life worse than that of a beast of burden．
在该句中，前面出现的词组为a life，但that替代的却是the life。
that作为替代词，它不能用于零关系分句（即没有关系代词的定语从句）之前。例如：

The problem confronting us today is not dissimilar from that which the nation confronted in the 1930s．
流落到美语里的汉语
现代社会各国语言相互渗透，美语中外来语也很多。长期以来，笔者的兴趣之一就是注意日常美语里的中文。本篇搜集了其他方面的一些词汇，按字母排序如下：
　　Cheong-sam——长衫。原特指女性节庆时穿的红色旗袍，后泛指袍装。
　　Confucius——孔子。显然是从“孔夫子”音译而来。
　　Dingho——顶好，最佳。一家著名的东方杂货连锁店就以此命名。不过虽然此词被收入部分辞书，但一般美国人似乎不懂这个词的意思。
　　Fengshui——风水。现在看风水在美国已是很时髦的事了，各种相关书籍充斥市场。
　　Ginseng——人参。主要指北美一带出产的“花旗参”，又称“西洋参”。
　　Gung-ho——热情高涨，极感兴趣。这个词在美语里用的频率特高，人们常挂在嘴边，比如：At first everyone is gung-ho about this idea.But now no-body even talks about it.（刚开始大家对这个想法都抱有极大的兴趣和热情。而现在谁也不提它了）。但对于这个词的原意却说法不一。有人认为是从“干活”这个词派生而来，也有人认为是从公共合作社的缩写“公合”而来，还有人认为是从“更好”这个词转化来的。笔者倾向于此词派生于“干活”的说法。
　　IChing——《易经》。
　　Kowtow——极其卑顺的态度。来自中文的“磕头”。
　　Kungfu——中国武术。中文原词为“功夫”。
　　Lao-tzu——老子。
　　Mah-jong——麻将。
　　Sampan——指单帆或需用桨划的小船。来自“舢板”。
　　Silk——丝绸。源于中文的“丝”。
　　Tai-chi（chuan）——太极或太极拳。
　　Tao——道。道教。
　　TaoTeChing——《道德经》。
　　Tofu——豆腐。
　　Tong——秘密组织，帮会。从汉语“堂”派生而来。
　　Typhoon——台风。
　　YinandYang——阴阳。这些词的拼法大多延用韦氏（Wade Giles）音标。
　　另外，有一句常用话，虽然里面没有一个中文字，但公认是从中国话里搬来的，这句话就是“Long time no see”———很久不见。
“群”的表达
观众a crowd of spectators
一群人a crowd of people
一群人a throng of people
一群影迷a throng of film fans
一群女学生a group of girl students
一群旁观者a group of onlookers
一群欢迎者a troop of welcomers
一群示威者a troop of demonstrators
注：
CROWD：无组织或者无秩序的人群；
THRONG： 为数众多的挤在一处或向前涌去的群；
GROUP：有一定组织的；
TROOP：正常行进中的群
一群才子a galaxy of talents
一群美女a galaxy of beauties
一群匪徒a band of gangsters
一群劫匪a gang of robbers
一群建筑物a cluster of buildings
一群海岛a cluster of islands
注：
GALAXY：出色或著名的人物群；
BAND/GANG：有明显在轻蔑色彩，强盗、匪徒等的群（帮、伙）；
CLUSTER：集结物体的群（簇、堆）。

一群羊a flock of sheep
一群鸭a flock of ducks
一群牛a herd of cattle
一群马a herd of horses
一群豺狼a pack of wolves
一群猎犬a pack of hounds
一群猴子a host of monkeys
一群蜜蜂a swarm of bees

注：
FLOCK： 飞鸟家禽、牲畜等的群，尤指羊群；
HERD：大动物的群；
PACK：野兽、猎犬等的群


自己收录一些句子（英汉翻译），大家看看吧：

1．As they grow old, people also accumulate belongings for two other reasons: lack of physical and mental energy—both of which are essential in turning out and throwing away—and sentiment.
　　分析：该句包含了并列结构被分割的情况。lack of physical and mental energy和sentiment 是并列结构，作two other reasons的同位语。但是被非限定性定语从句both of which are essential in turning out and throwing away分割。
译文：人们随着日趋年迈，积存物品还有其它两个原因：一是缺乏体力和精神，两者在清理和扔掉无用之物时不可或缺，二是感情上的原因。
2．Old Henry and his wife Phoebe were as fond of each other as it is possible for two old people to be who have nothing else in this life to be fond of.
　　分析：连词as 引导的比较状语从句中，it 代替for two old people to be。to be 后省略了fond of each other。to be 做分割成分。
　　译文：象两位老人一生中没有其它什幺东西可爱而彼此相爱一样，老亨利和他的妻子芬比也互相爱慕。
3．It is the insistence, as a first consideration, upon the interdependence of the various elements in, and parts of, the United States—a recognition of the old and permanently important manifestation of the American spirit of the pioneer.
　　分析：insistence 后接upon the interdependence of the various elements in, and parts of, the United States, 中间被插入语as a first consideration 分割，做进一步说明。该句选自美国前总统罗斯福在1933年的就职演说。汉语中动词用得较多，翻译时可把名词转译为动词。
　　译文：我们首先应考虑的是，坚持美国国内各种因素之间、各个部分之间的相互依赖关系——即承认体现传统的和永远重要的美国开拓精神。
4．A better knowledge of China’s civilization would lay open to us an empire of learning, hitherto fabulously described.
　　分析：lay open 和 an empire of learning 被介词短语 to us 分割。本句选自英国前首相撒切尔夫人1982年在中国欢迎宴会上的讲话。翻译时要注意转译的应用。如把“better”译为副词“更好地”。
　　译文：更好地了解中国的文明，将为我们打开一个知识的王国，对这个王国迄今只有神话般的描述。
5．In the last eight years there were difficult, almost non-stop negotiations and reported threats of failure, ultimately overcome by a combination of creative compromise and stubborn determination—indeed, some call it unprecedented determination—to succeed.
　　分析：本句的主干结构是：…there were negotiations and…threats of failure。“overcome by…”是过去分词短语，修饰 threats of failure。stubborn determination 和其定语动词不定式“to succeed”被“indeed, some call it unprecedented determination”分割。
　　译文：在最后的八年里，进行了艰苦卓绝的、几乎是不间断的谈判，其间屡经失败之虞，但最终通过创造性的协调和要取得成功的顽强决心——确实有人称之为前所未有的决心——而渡过难关，取得了胜利。
6．Abraham Lincoln is the most famous instance of the claim that Americans often made that in their country a man may rise from the lowest to the highest position.
　　分析：the claim 和其同位语 that in their country a man may rise from the lowest to the highest position 被 the claim 的定语从句that Americans often made 分割。同位语从句在翻译时可按照顺序翻译，将其翻译为分句。
　　译文：美国人常认为，在他们国家，一个人的地位可以从社会最底层上升到社会最上层，亚伯拉罕•林肯就是极好的例子。
7．To such length did she go in rehearsal that two actors walked out.
　　分析：such…that 结构可将such或含有such 的词组放在句首，使全句采用部分倒装。与此用法类似的还有so…that结构。
　　译文：她在排演中搞得太过分，以致两名男演员退出不干了。
8．Nowhere do 1980 census statistics dramatize more the American search for spacious living than in the Far West.
译文：1980年那里的人口普查统计资料也不如远西地区的更能生动地说明美国人对宽敞的生活环境的追求。
9．Nonstop waves of immigrants played a role, too and so did bigger crops of babies as yesterday’s “baby boom” generation reached its child-bearing years.
译文：不间断的移民浪潮也起了作用——而且随着昔日在“生育高峰期”出生的一代人达到生育年龄，婴儿的出生数量增加了，这同样起了作用。
10．Tapping the new spirit, there can be no nobler nor more ambitious task for America to undertake on this day of a new beginning than to help shape a just and peaceful world that is truly humane.
　　分析：no nobler nor more ambitious 中的 nor 是连词，常与 neither 或 nor 连用，有时也与 no, never 等表示否定的词连用。主句是含有 no more…than 的普通比较句型。分词短语tapping the new spirit 是表示目的的状语。本句选自美国前总统卡特在1977年的就职演说。
　　译文：为了发扬这种新的精神，在这一新的开端开始之际，对美国来说，最崇高和最有雄心勃勃的任务是帮助建立一个真正人道、正义、和平的世界。
11．Marriage has never been more popular and desirable than it is now——so appealing in fact, that even those who are in the process of divorce can scarcely wait for the law to allow them to marry again.
译文：婚姻从未像现在这样受大众欢迎，为大众所渴望。事实上，婚姻是如此地吸引人，以至那些正在办理离婚手续的人，几乎等不到法律的判决，就想再度结婚了。
12．There was something original，independent and heroic about the plan that pleased all of them ．这个方案有创造性，而且别出心裁，又有魅力，所以深得他们的喜欢。
13．Temperature plays the same part in the flow of heat that pres- sure does in the flow of fluids．温度在热的传导中所起的作用和压力在液体的流动中所起的作用相同。(注意使用该句式)
14．When the lights came on again, hardly a person in the city can have turned on a switch without reflecting how great a servant he had at his fingertips.
　　分析：在这句话中，“hardly…without”构成了“双重否定”（double negation）。虽然只有without在词形上具有明显的否定特征，但是hardly（以及scarcely, barely, few, little等）虽然没有明显的否定特征，却有否定的词义。实际上，双重否定表达的是肯定的意思，因此在翻译成汉语时，既可以将原句按照两个否定的形式表述出来，也可按照否定的语气译出。
　　译文：电灯又亮了，该城的人们打开开关的时候，想必几乎人人都会想到，电灯是随时可供他们使用的多幺有用的东西呀
15．There was the growing realization that for all their vastness, the resources to be found in the oceans and seas were not inexhaustible. One could not hunt whales at will without risking their extermination or catch herring limitlessly without threatening survival of the st** was the growing realization that for all their vastness, the resources to be found in the oceans and seas were not inexhaustible. One could not hunt whales at will without risking their extermination or catch herring limitlessly without threatening survival of the stock.
译文：人们越来越认识到，尽管海洋无边无垠，但其资源并不是取之不尽用之不竭的。人们不可能随心所欲地捕鲸而不使其遭致灭绝的危险，或无限制地捕捞鲱鱼而不威胁到该物种的繁衍生息。
16. Anything from cosmic rays to radiation to diet may activate a dormant oncogene, but how remains unknown.
译文：任何东西，从宇宙射线到辐射，以至日常饮食，都可能激活潜伏的致癌基因，但如何激活的，仍然不得而知。
17. So, tips will no doubt net much less during the summer and the company will be less interesting.
　　分析：这是并列句。由and连接。第一句中的谓语动词是will net, net在这里做动词，意为“挣得、赢得”。第二句的谓语动词是will be,因为两个句子在结构上是平行的，所以省略了will,又因为省略的是助动词，因此汉语中不必译出。
　　译文：整个夏天挣的小费必将很少很少，而且还得和乏味的人在一起干活。
18. By taking thought, men can move mountains——and have.
译文：凭借智能，人能移山，实际上人类已经做到了。
19. When the media add interpretation and analysis, as they must to do their job fully, strong dislike of the messengers may become intense.
　　分析：as 引导的从句说明when从句的内容，可以说是从句的从句，翻译时最好放在主句之后，起补充说明作用。句中must 后省略了谓语add interpretation and analysis。
译文：媒体一旦增添了解释和分析，就会引起人们的强烈反感，然而，媒体又必须这样做才能充分发挥其作用。
20. But the individualist approach, by attacking gender roles, denying the significance of physiological difference, and condemning existing familial institutions as hopelessly patriarchal, has often simply treated as irrelevant the family roles important to many women.
　　分析：句中由by引导的三个并列平行结构表示原因。treated as…结构使用了倒装结构，因为the family roles后面有修饰成分，故将其置后。
　　译文：而个人主义的方法由于攻击性别角色，否定生理差别的重要性，攻击现存的家庭体制是不可救药的父权制，结果把对许多妇女来说非常重要的家庭角色完全视为无关紧要了。
21. There is no complete inventory of positions or people in federal service at this level. The lack may be explained by separate agency statutes and personnel systems, diffusion among so many special services, and the absence of any central point (short of President himself) with jurisdiction over all upper-level personnel of the government.
译文：这个级别的联邦政府官员和职位没有完整的记载。对此（缺少详细记载）所做的解释可能是，各部门的条例和人事制度各不相同，分布的特殊服务部门太多并缺少一个中心机构（总统本人除外）来管理所有的政府高级官员。
22. That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of　descendants an individual will have and　hence the number of gene copies　transmitted.
译文：那种性别比例能在最大程度上增加一个个体所能拥有的后代数量，并因此能在最大程度上增加所传递到后代身上去的基因复制品的数量。
23. With the conclusion of a burst activity , the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids , leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is reconverted , via oxidative metabolism , by the liver into glucose , which is then sent (in part )back to the muscles for glycogen synthesis.
解释：本句中修饰成分极多，以分词修饰和介词结构修饰为主，作各种类型的状语。前面的状语和主句还好理解，从leaving开始句子变难；leaving引导的直到句末的结构来做整个句子的状语；分词中又包含了三个状语，其中的两个via oxidative metabolism by the liver又起到了插入语的作用，把be converted into拆成两段。
本句的另外一个特征是其中充斥着专有名词。其中的body fluids, oxidative和synthesis通过字面的意思或者根据词头、词根我们还是应该猜出其意思的，lactic acid, metabolism和muscle这三个词在生物类文章中极其常用，大家应该背下来；而glycogen这种东西则没办法，只能作一个首字母提炼。但是请记住，GRE和GMAT文章中只要出现了这种专有名词，出题者是一定会在文章中把它在文章中所乃至的词义解释清楚的，所以读者遇到文章中做了解释的专有名词，应该力求把解释看懂。
译文：随着爆发出来的运动的结束，再体液中乳酸含量会变得很高，使得大型动物处于容易受到攻击的状态，直到乳酸通过有氧新陈代谢，被肝脏转化成（convert into）葡萄糖，而葡萄糖接下来又会（部分）传送回肌肉中重新合成糖原 。
24. Although Gutman admits that forced separation by sale was frequent, he shows that the slaves’ preference, revealed most clearly on plantations where sale was infrequent, was very much for stable monogamy.
译文：虽然古特曼承认，由于奴隶买卖而造成的被迫离散甚为频繁，但他还是证明，奴隶的偏爱——在那些奴隶买卖并不频繁的种植园上被最为显着地揭示出来——在很大程度上侧重于稳定的一夫一妻制（monogamy）。
25. This preference for exogamy, Gutman suggests， may have derived from　West African rules governing marriage, which, though they differed from one tribal group to another, all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin.
译文：古特曼表示，这种对于外部通婚的偏爱很有可能缘起于西部非洲制约着婚姻的规定，尽管这些规定在一个和另一个部落群体之间不尽相同，但都涉及到某种对近亲联姻（union with close kin）的禁止。
26.Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the Black family encouraged　the transmission of-and so was crucial in sustaining-the Black heritage of folklore, music, and religious expression from one generation to another, a heritage that slaves were continually fashioning out of their African and American experiences.
译文：古特曼人令人信服地论辨道，黑人家庭的稳定有助于包括民间传说、音乐、及宗教表达在内的黑人文化遗产一代一代传递下去，因而在维持文化遗产方面也起着至关重要的作用，而对于这种文化遗产，黑奴们不断地从其非洲和美洲的经历中予以丰富发展。
27. Although some experiments show that, as an object becomes familiar, its internal　representation becomes more holistic and　the recognition process correspondingly more parallel, the weight of evidence　seems to support the serial hypothesis, at least for objects that are not notably simple and familiar.
虽然某些实验表明，随着一个物体变得熟悉起来，其内心再现图像亦更具整体感，辨认过程相应地更趋于平行，但证据的砝码似乎在支持序列假设（serial hypothesis），至少是对于那些不甚简单、不甚熟悉的物体来说。
28. Thus, for instance, it may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom, but only an approximation to a somewhat more correct equation taking account of spin, magnetic dipole, and relativistic effects; and that this corrected　equation is itself only an imperfect approximation to an infinite set of　quantum field-theoretical equations.
因此，举例来说，对数学家而言，了解到下述情形可能会令其惊愕不已，即薛定谔（Schrodinger）的氢原子方程式并非是对该原子作出的一种绝然正确的描述，而仅仅是个近似值，趋近于一个在某种程度上更为正确的将自旋、磁性偶极子、以及相对论效应考虑在内的方程式；而这个得以纠正的方程式就其本身而言也只是一个不完美的近似值，趋近于无穷无尽的一整套量子场论方程式。
29. In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer's Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism ; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted , a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression ?
不仅如此，有些黑人小说（比如JT的甘蔗）的风格接近与表现主义和超现实主义；这种技巧是否为流行的主题提供了一个和谐的对应呢？这种主题刻画了黑人注意与之相抗争的命运，这是一个通常用更为自然主义的表现手法所表达的主题。
30. Although these molecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths， where most of the energy of sunlight is concentrated, to pass through, they absorb some of the longer-wavelength，　　infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface, radiation that would　otherwise be transmitted back into space.
虽然这些分子允许可见波长（visible wavelength）的辐射——阳光的绝大部分能量就汇集于此——不受阻挡地穿透，但它们却会吸收某些较长波长（longer-wavelength），亦即从地球表面辐射出的红外发射（infrared emission），这种辐射若不是二氧化碳的缘故就会被重新输送回太空。
31. The role those anthropologists ascribe to evolution is not of dictating　the details of human behavior but one　of imposing constraints—ways of　feeling, thinking, and acting that　　"come naturally" in archetypal situations in any culture.
这些人类学家所归诸于生物进化的作用，不是规定人类行为的种种细节，而是将各种限制强加于人类——即在任何文化的典型情景中都会“自然表露”的情感、思维、以及行动方式。
32. Which of the following most probably provides an appropriate analogy from human morphology for the “details” versus “constraints” distinction made in the passage in relation to human behavior?
以下哪一个选项最有可能为文章中所谈到的与人类行为有关的“人类行为细节”相对“人类所受限制”之间的差异，从人类形态的角度上提供了一个合适的类比？
33. Studies by Hargrave and Geen estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of　individual zooplankton species in the　laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions　using the known population density　of grazers.
由哈格雷夫（Hargrave）和吉恩（Geen）所进行的研究，对自然条件下的群落捕食速率进行了估计，其手段是通过测量出实验室内单独的浮游动物种类的捕食速率，然后利用已知的食草动物种群密度，计算出实地状况下的群落捕食速率。
34. In the periods　of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer，　　Haney recorded maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient-poor　lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production.
在浮游动物数量激增的高峰期，亦即在春季后期以及夏季，哈尼记录了最大程度上的每日群落食草比率，对于营养物不充足的湖和沼泽湖而言，分别为每日浮游植物繁殖量的6.6%和114%.
35. The hydrologic cycle, a major topic in this science, is the complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes, beginning as atmospheric water vapor, passing into liquid and solid form as precipitation, thence along and into the ground surface, and finally again returning to the form of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration.
水文循环（hydrologic cycle），作为该学科中的一个主要课题，指的是水所经过的诸现象的整个循环过程，开始时是作为大气中的水蒸气，转而作为雨、雪、露、雹一类的降水量经过液体和固体形态，由此而沿着地层表面分布或进入地层表面，最终通过蒸发和散发作用再度回复到大气水蒸气的形态。
36. The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian discontent that had been developing　steadily in the United States since about 1870 had been precipitated by the　　closing of the internal frontier——that is, the depletion of available new land　needed for further expansion of the American farming system.
史学家弗雷德里克.杰.特纳（Frederick J.Turner）于十九世纪九十年代著述道，美国约自18世纪70年代以来一直在持续不断发展的农民不满，由于国内边远地区（internal frontier）的封闭而更趋加剧——亦即是说，美国农业系统进一步扩展所必需的可资利用的新土地几近耗竭。
37. In the early 1950’s，historians who studied preindustrial Europe （which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800） began， for the first time in large numbers, to　　investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political　and social elite: the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops, and local　magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books.
难句类型：复杂修饰、插入语
译文：二十世纪五十年代早期，研究前工业化时代欧洲（此处我们可将其界定为约自1300年至1800年这一时期的欧洲）的史学家，首次以众多的人数（杨鹏的书中：第一次以大量的数据），开始调查前工业化时代欧洲人口中的大多数，而非那些构成了政治与社会精英阶层的百分之二或三的人口，即国王、将军、法官、贵族、主教、以及地方上的达官显贵，而正是这部分人一直到那时为止普遍充斥于史学著作。
38. Even the requirement that biomaterials processed from these materials be nontoxic to host tissue can be met by techniques derived from studying the reactions of tissue cultures to biomaterials or from short-term implants.
即使是这样的要求，即从这些材料中加工出来的生物材料应该对受移植者的组织无害，也能够通过从研究组织培养对生物材料的反应而来的，或从研究短期移植而来的技术来满足。
39. But achieving necessary matches in physical properties across interfaces between living and　　nonliving matter requires knowledge of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other—an area that we have not yet explored thoroughly.
但是，要想沿着原生和非原生物质之间的界面获取生理特性的必要匹配，需要某种知识，即什幺样的分子控制着细胞彼此间的结合——而对这一领域，我们尚未进行充分的探索。
40. Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law—notwithstanding, of course, a　considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactments are concerned—that its study is indispensable in order to　appreciate adequately the full range of　possible legal phenomena.
伊斯兰法是一种如此不同于所有其它法律形式的现象——毋庸置疑，尽管就其主要内容和有积极意义的法规而言，与其它法律形式中的这种或那种形式存在着相当数量的且不可避免的巧合相似之处——以致于对它进行研究便显得不可或缺，以便充分理解有可能存在的法律现象的全部范围。
41. （Both Jewish law and canon law are more uniform than Islamic law.） Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora （the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel）， the spirit of the legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament is very close to that of the Talmud， one of the primary codifications of Jewish law in the Diaspora.
尽管从历史角度来看，在古代以色列作为独立主权国家的犹太教法与大流散时期（Diaspora，即以色列被征服后古代犹太人被巴比伦人逐出故土）的犹太教法之间存在着一个明晰可辨的断裂，然则，《旧约全书》（Old Testament）后半部分中法律内容的精神与《犹太教法典》（Talmud）极为一脉相承，而所谓的《犹太教法典》，是指大流散时期犹太教法的主要典籍辑录之一。
42. Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical breakaway from the Arab paganism that preceded it; Islamic law is the result of an examination,　from a religious angle, (examination) of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre-Islamic　Arabia and numerous legal elements　taken over from the non-Arab peoples　of the conquered territories. (as it did )实际上是一句插入语。
另一方面，伊斯兰教则代表着与此前存在的阿拉伯异教（Arab paganism）的一种根本上的决裂；伊斯兰法是从宗教的角度，对各种杂乱无章、绝无共同点的法律内容进行考察所致的结果，而这些法律内容实际上是由前伊斯兰阿拉伯国家（Pre-Islamic Arabia）法律的不尽相同的组成部分以及由从被征服的土地上非阿拉伯民族借鉴过来的无数法律因素所构成。
43. One such novel idea is　that (idea) of inserting into the chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not a part of the plants’ natural constitution; specifically, the idea of inserting into nonleguminous plants the genes, if they can be identified and isolated, that fit the leguminous plants to be hosts for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Hence, (there is ) the intensified research on legumes.
这其中的一个新颖思想就是，在植物的染色体（chromosome）内注入并非是该植物自然构造一个部分的那些不相关联的因基：具体而言，这一思想是，在非豆科植物内注入这样一些基因，倘若这些基因可被辨识出来并被分离开来，而这些基因业已使豆科植物宜于充当那些具备固氮作用的细菌的寄主。由此，对豆科植物的研究日趋深入。
44. It is　one of nature’s great ironies that the　availability of nitrogen in the soil frequently sets an upper limit on plant growth even though the plants’ leaves　are bathed in a sea of nitrogen gas.下述情形真可谓是自然界的一个莫大讽刺：土壤中所能获得的氮肥量往往对植物的生长构成了一个上限，虽然植物的叶子被沐浴在一片氮气的海洋中。
45. Unless they succeed，the　yield gains of the Green Revolution will be largely lost even if the genes in　legumes that equip those plants to enter　into a symbiosis with nitrogen fixers　are identified and isolated，and even if　the transfer of those gene complexes，once they are found， becomes possible.
除非他们能取得成功，不然的话，绿色革命的产量收益将在很大程度上损失殆尽，即使豆科植物中使这些植物有条件进入到与固氮细菌共生关系的基因可被辨识出来和分离开来的话，且即使这些基因综合体（gene complex），一旦被发现之后，其移植得以成为可能的话。
46. Its subject（to use Maynard Mack’s categories）is　"life-as-spectacle，" for readers，　　diverted by its various incidents，observe its hero Odysseus primarily from without；the tragic Iliad，however，presents "life-as-experience"：readers　are asked to identify with the mind of　　Achilles，whose motivations render him a not particularly likable hero. （5）
其主题〔若借鉴梅纳德。迈克（Maynard Mack）的两个分类范畴的话〕是“人生作为外部景象”，因为读者的注意力被作品那形形色色的事件所分散，主要是从外部来观察其主人公奥德修斯（Odyssus）的；然而，富于悲剧色彩的《伊利亚特》所表现的则是“人生作为内心体验”：读者被要求与阿基琉斯（Achilles）的心灵产生共鸣，而其行为动机却致使他变作一个并非特别惹人喜爱的主人公。 （从分号后的语句推理出前面的意思）
注：hero:主人公；without:外部；likable:有吸引力的
47. The best evidence for the layered-mantle thesis is the well-established fact that volcanic rocks found on oceanic islands, islands believed to result from mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle, are composed of material fundamentally different from that of the mid-ocean ridge system， whose source, most　geologists contend, is the upper mantle.
对于地幔分层论点来说，最好的证据乃这样一个确认的事实，即在那些海洋岛屿——这些岛屿据信是源于由下层地幔升上来的地幔柱状溶岩流（mantle plume）——上发现的火山岩石，是由与海洋中部山脊系统的物质根本不同的物质构成的，而这一海洋中部山脊系统的成因，大多数地质学家论辩道，为上部地幔。
48. Some geologists, however, on the basis of observations concerning mantle　xenoliths， argue that the mantle is　not layered, but that heterogeneity is created by fluids rich in "incompatible elements" （elements tending toward　liquid rather than solid state） percolating upward and transforming　portions of the upper mantle　irregularly, according to the vagaries of the fluids’ pathways.
但是，某些地质学家，以对地幔捕虏岩体（xenolith）所作的观察为依据，指出地幔并非是分层排列的，相反，地幔的异质性是由那些富含“不兼容成分”的流质构成的，这些成分趋向于流体而非固体的状态，自下而上渗透扩散，并依照这些流质流向的任意性，不规则地将上部地幔的某些部分予以改变。
49. It is possible to make specific complementary DNA’s （cDNA’s）that can serve as molecular probes to seek out the messenger RNA’s （mRNA’s）of the peptide hormones.
科学家可以制造出特异的（specific）互补DNA’s（cDNA’s），以此作为分子探子（molecular probe），探觅出肽激素的信使RNA’s（mRNA’s）。
50．The molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cDNA probes should also be much faster than the immunological method because it can　take years of tedious purifications　　to isolate peptide hormones and then develop antiserums to them.
采用cDNA探子来测定肽激素的这一分子生物学方法同时也应该比免疫学的方法速度来得快，因为对于免疫的方法来说，需耗费好几年枯燥的提纯进程，方能将肽素分离了出来，然后再培养出针对它们的抗血清。
51. Nevertheless, researchers of the Pleistocene epoch have developed all sorts of more or less fanciful model schemes of how they would have arranged the Ice Age had they been in charge of events.
然而，研究更新世的研究者发展除了各种各样的或多或少有些奇怪思想的模型系统，用来显示如果由他们来决定地质事件的话他们将会如何安排冰川纪。
52. This succession was based primarily on a series of deposits　and events not directly related to　　glacial and interglacial periods, rather　than on the more usual modern method of studying biological remains found in interglacial beds themselves interstratified within glacial deposits.
这一序列演替（succession）所依据的，主要是一系列与冰川期和间冰期并不直接相关的地质沉积物和地质事件，而不是依据更为普遍的现代方法，去研究间冰层（interglacial bed）中所发现的生物残留物，而这些间冰层本身又在冰川沉积物发生间层化（interstatified）。
53．There have been attempts to explain these taboos in terms of inappropriate social　　relationships either between those who are involved and those who are　not simultaneously involved in the satisfaction of a bodily need, or　between those already satiated and　those who appear to be shamelessly gorging.
人们试图对这些禁忌作出解释，所依据的要幺是那些正置身于某一身体需要满足的人与那些并置身于某一身体需要之满足的人之间的，要幺是那些早已酒足饭饱的人与那些正在不知羞耻地狼吞虎咽失之间的不相称的社会关系。
54．Granted that the presence　of these elements need not argue an　authorial awareness of novelistic　construction comparable to that of Henry James， their presence does encourage attempts to unify the novel’s　heterogeneous parts.
诚然，这些因素的存在并不能证明作者对小说架构的意识可与亨利。詹姆斯（Henry James）的那种意识相比拟；然则，任何力图将小说所有形形色色的因素统一起来的做法，在某种程度上注定是无法令人信服的。 Granted that:大家都统一、当然，表让步，=admitted , of course.
55．It is not known how rare this resemblance is, or whether it is most often seen in　inclusions of silicates such as garnet, whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to that of diamond；　　but when present, the resemblance is regarded as compelling evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly cogenetic.
现在尚不知这种类似稀少到何种地步，也不知道是否它最常见于象石榴石一类的硅酸盐内含物中，而这类物质的晶体结构普遍地在某种程度上类似于金刚石的晶体结构。但一旦存在，这种类似就被视作极有说服力的证据，证明金刚石与内含物确是同源的。
56．Even the "radical" critiques　of this mainstream research model, such as the critique developed in Divided Society, attach the issue of ethnic assimilation too mechanically to factors of economic and social　mobility and are thus unable to illuminate the cultural subordination　of Puerto Ricans as a colonial minority.
即使是对这一主流研究模型的“激进”批评，诸如《分裂的社会》（Divided Society）一书中所提出的那种批判，亦将少数民族同化问题过分机械地与经济和社会移动性的因素联系起来，因此无从阐明波多黎各人作为一个殖民地少数民族的文化从属关系。
57．I can think of a good few medical students who would willingly “work their way through colleges” by filling in as nurses at our understaffed hospitals.
我可以想象不少读医的学生是愿意来我们人手不足的医院临时充当护士，以此来挣钱读完大学的。分析：fill in用做及物动词词组，和a blank/a check./a form等搭配时，是做“填写”、“填入”解释的，但是如果用作不及物动词词组时，和for sb. as sb.搭配，就是做“暂时代替”来解释。
58．(An intelligence test does not measure character, social adjustment, physical endurance, manual skills, or artistic abilities.) To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity.
批评智力的测试不反映上述情况，就好比批评温度计不能测出风速一样。
分析：很多情况下，failure这个词是做“失败”解释的，但是，当failure后面接动词不定式，形成failure to do sth.的结构的时候，这个failure就应当解释为“未能”、“没有”。
59．It seems to me that the time is ripe for the Department of Employment and the Department of Education to get together with the universities and produce a revised educational system which will make a more economic use of the wealth of talent, application and industry currently being wasted on certificates, diplomas and degrees that no one wants to know about.
我认为时机已成熟。就业部门和教育部门应同大学携起手来，修正我们的教育制度，使之能比较合理地使用学生的才能、勤奋和刻苦。而现在他们这些才能和努力都浪费在无人感兴趣的证书、文凭和学位上。
分析：虽然application常做“申请”解释，但是由上下文来看，这里显然不是这个意思，而是另一个意思：勤奋刻苦。同样，industry也有这个问题，它多做“工业”解释，但根据上下文应当是“勤劳”的意思。此外，这里的economic也是误译，只是看它和economy有些像，就想当然地译成“经济”，这是不对的，应当是看它在文章里的具体环境，采用“节约的”、“合理的”这个译法。
60．(There is a definite link between smoking and heart disease and lung cancer.) But this doesn’t make you too uncomfortable because you are in good company.
但这并不能使人们感到太多不舒服，因为和你一样抽烟的人很多。
分析：company作可数和不可数名词时的意义是不同的。作可数名词时是“公司”，而作不可数名词时是“伙伴”、“伴侣”的意思，要格外小心。
61．He stepped right in after them, like it or not, and he was determined that nothing as petty as good manners should keep him from a chance of enlightenment.
他不管人家欢迎不欢迎，紧跟着他们走了进去。什幺礼貌不礼貌，他顾不得这一套。他决心不错过这个机会，把心里的问题弄明白。
分析：enlightenment在词典中的意思确实是“启蒙”、“启发”，但是在这里如果原封不动地照搬，不仅生硬，且不符合原文意思，这里就需要我们把它的引申意义找出来，即“把问题搞清楚”。
62．Until the World War brought chaos to most of their institutions, their whole lives were regulated; perhaps more than those of any other people save the Spaniards, by a regard for precedent.
在第一次世界大战给他们的大部分风俗习惯带来变化之前，他们的所有生活，除了西班牙人之外，或许比其它民族都更受到先例的制约。
分析：save可以用作动词，但是如果作为动宾结构的话，它的主语又是什幺呢？perhaps more than those of any other people和perhaps more than thirty people是两种不同的结构，后者是名词短语，可以作主语；但是前者只是一个形容词短语，不能做主语。其次，如果by a regard for precedent是save的状语的话，前面也没有必要用逗号隔开。实际上，这个by a regard for precedent是和were regulated组成的一个被动结构：were regulated by…。这样，save这一部分就不是一个句子，只是一个修饰成分。事实上，save是个介词，作“除了”解，相当于but，或是except。
63．It is the two superpowers that should be responsible for the hostilities in the Middle East．应对中东战争（×敌对状态）负责的是两个超级大国。
有一些名词，特别是抽象名词的单数变成复数后，意义是不一样的。“hostility单数作“enmity，“ill will“敌意”“敌视”解，但“hostilities复数作“war“战争”解。
64. ）．．．he let the line slip down，down，down，unrolling off the first of the two reserve coils．……他就松手让钓丝滑下去，下去，下去，把两卷备用的（×多余的）钓丝也松开了一卷。
reserve有“预备着的”，“多余的”意思，这里应是“备用”之意。
"才"的用法
1. (= a moment ago; just)：你怎麼才來就要走？　You’ve only just come. Why do you want to leave so soon? /他才回到家裡，湯姆就來找他了．　He had just got home when Tom came looking for him.

2. (= not until; 前面加“時間詞”)： 他九點鐘才來，太晚了．　He didn’t come until 9 o’clock. That was too late. /大風到晚上才止住了．The gale didn’t stop until evening. /他走了兩個鐘頭才走到．It took him two hours to get there. /你為什麼這會兒才說呢？　How come you didn’t say anything until now?

3. (= not unless; not until; then and only then; for no other reason)： 他吃了三碗麵才飽．　He wasn’t full until he had eaten three bowls. /經他解釋之後，我才明白是怎麼回事．　I didn’t understand what was going on until he explained it to me. /他說行才行．It’s O.K. only if he says so. /只有靠群眾，才能把工作做好．Only by relying on the people can we do our work well. /正因為我們有困難，才派我們去．　We were sent precisely because there were problems there.

4. (= only;後面跟“數詞”)： 現在才八點鐘，還早著呢． It’s only
8 o’clock, so there’s still plenty of time. /才五塊錢嗎？真便宜．　Only five dollars? That’s really cheap. /這孩子才五歲，已經認得不少字了．　The child is only five, and he already knows quite a few characters.

5. (= actually; really; 用於肯定或衝突，強調“才“字之前的詞，通常句尾用”呢“字作語助詞)：這才好呢! 　Now this is really good! /你以為他傻嗎? 他才不傻呢! You think he is stupid? Not him! /我才懶得管呢! I can’t be bothered! 或 I couldn’t care less. /你才是撒
謊! You are the one who’s lying. /他要是不知道才怪呢!I’d be really surprised if he didn’t know.

6. （表示事情在前不久發生；剛才）：The performance has just started.節目才開始．Why leave so soon?怎麼，才來就要走？

7. （表示事情發生或結束得晚）：He left New York only yesterday.他昨天才離開紐約．

8. （表示只有在某種條件下或由於某種原因、目的，然後怎麼樣，前面常有“只有、必須、因為、由於”等配合）：非等起重機來了才能裝?#092;嗎？Must we wait till the crane arrives before we start loading.只有肯努力，才能得到好成績．Only you study hard can you get good results.

9. （對比起來表示數量小，次數少，能力插等等；僅僅）：1949年以前中國剛年產量最高才90多萬噸．Before 1949, China’s highest annual output of steel was only just over 900,000 tons.當時他才五歲．He was only five years old then.

10. （表示強調所說的事，句尾常用“呢”字）：麥子長的才好呢！The wheat is coming along fine.他要是不知道才怪呢！It would be really strange if he didn’t know.屋子裡不熱外面才熱呢！It is not hot in the house, nut it’s really hot outside.

請注意! 在英文中這個“才”字不一定是非要用”某個單字”來表達不可；它可以用一些特別的句型，片語或語氣來表達．所以，學會用這些特別的句型，片語或語氣來表達是很重要的．
“非常, 很, 极其”的英文表达法



　　相信大家都会有这样的经历: 每每用英语表达一些很一般的概念时, 我们总会立刻想起某个表达法. 例如: 想说"很"时,立刻想到了very或very much; 想说"大"时, 则用big或large.这样的一一对应, 大大减弱了英语写作的丰富性和生动性.

　　于是这些最先为我们想到的表达法, 便成了我们提高英语水平的羁绊. 如果我们能把这些最常用概念的英语表达归类, 总结, 贫乏的英语表达便会涣然一新.

在英语中用来表达"极其, 非常, 很"的方式有26种:
1) most
(used for giving force)
a. (to an adjective) very
It really is most annoying.
b.(to an adverb) quite; very
Whatever happens, I shall most certainly attend the meeting.
注意:
most只能修饰具有主观意见或感情色彩的形容词和副词, 表示"非常, 很"的概念.我们可以说 most certainly, 但不能说most tall 或 most quick

2) awfully adv.
infml (used to give more force to an expression) very
awfully cold, awfully nice
I am awfully sorry for it.

3) badly adv.
(与"want", "need"连用) a great deal; very much
They want help badly.
He is badly in need of a haircut.

4) more than ...
fml, to a degree at which "..." is no longer a strong enough
or suitable word. 与中文的"无以名状"差不多
We were more than happy to hear of your escape.
I think his offer is more than fair.

5) ever so/such
infml. esp. BrE very
It's ever so cold.
She's ever such a nice girl.

6) immensely adv.
apprec very much
I enjoyed it immensely.

7) much adv.
to a great degree
I don't much like that idea.
I'm much surprised to hear that.

8) mighty adv.
infml. very
It was a mighty good meal, and everyone enjoyed it.

9) highly adv.
(esp. before adjectives made from verbs) to a high degree; very
highly pleased, highly skilled, highly interesting, highly
enjoyable
This is a highly amusing film.

10) greatly adv.
(with verb forms, esp. the past p.)
to a large degree; very
greatly moved by his kindnes
greatly to be feared
We are greatly obliged to you for your help.

11) mortally adv.
very greatly; deeply
She is mortally afraid of walking home alone on a
dark night.
He is mortally jealous.

12) deeply adv.
greatly
We are deeply obliged to you for your help.

13) like anything
very hard; fiercely
When they arrived, the house was burning like anything.
The maid wanted like anything to try on her mistress's clothes.
He is brave like anything.

14) only too
very
only too happy to come
I am only too glad to go there.

15) a thousand
It is a thouand pity.
A thousand thanks!

16) one hundred percent
I am sure the figure is one hundred percent correct.

17) to the world
He was tired to the world.

18) up to the handle
I am enjoying my trip up to the handle.

19) to a large extent
I agree with what you say to a large extent.

20) not half
BrE infml very
It isn't half windy today!
They didn't half support my proposal.

21) extremely
I am extremely sorry

22) exceedingly adv.
very; to an unusual degree
They were exceedingly kind.

23) terribly adv.
infml. very
I've been terribly worried about you all day.
We were terribly lucky to find you there.

24) quite adv.
more than usually; rather
It's really quite good; much better than we expected.

25) utterly adv.
completely
I found the books utterly charming, instructive, and
inspiring.

26) completely adv
wholly; altogether; in every way; totally
The army made a completely successful attack
on the enemy capital.

与日、夜相关的惯用语
每天都要经历的"日"和"夜"与惯用语的关系也很密切，下列例句足以为证：


　　(1)All night long: 整夜


Some stores stay open all night long.



　　(2)Call it a day: 一天工作完毕


Every day, we have class from 9am and will call it a day at 4.30pm.



　　(3)Day after day: 每天


Schooling could be very boring, as the students do the same things day after day.



　　(4)Day in day out: 一天又一天


Henry wears the same old jeans day in day out. Isn't he going to buy some new clothes ?



　　(5)For a rainy day: 为困难的日子作准备


When a person gets older, he will realise the importance of saving for a rainy day.



　　(6)In this day and age: 在现在这时代


In this day and age, no one can expect to get something out of nothing.



　　(7)Have an off day: 不大成功或顺利的一天


Tom did not do well in yesterday's test.He considered him unlucky euough to have an off day.



　　(8)The order of the day: 一般的惯例


In a petroleum station here, payment by credit card is the order of the day.



　　(9)The other day: 几天前


I bumped into an old friend the other day.



　　(10)To this day: （指日期）准确地


It is 40 years to this day that I left university.



　　(11)Have seen better days: 曾经历过好日子


Palmer was departmental head in that university before he came here. He has seen better days.



　　(12)Some day: 将来


Everyone hopes to be great some day.



　　(13)One's days are numbered: 末日将临：


Under computerisation, unskilled workers become redundant. Their days in a company are numbered.



　　(14)Carry the day: 胜利的一天


Our team lost at first, but later, it carried the day with two goals to one.



　　(15)Someone's day: 幸运的一天


Jim was promoted. Furthermore, he was given a performance bonus yesterday. It was his day.



　　(16)Take a day off: 休息一天


Janet was unwell and took a day off.



　　(17)Have a night out: 夜间出去消遣


It's time to have a change. We must have a night out at the weekend.



　　(18)A night owl: 迟迟不睡者


The moment Jack entered the university, he was a night owl.



　　(19)At the dead of night: 深夜


Our managerial officers attended the emergency meeting at the dead ofnight.



　　(20) Save the day: 使情况变佳.


Frank saved the day by kicking in a goal during the last five minutes of the match.



　　(21)Every dog has its day: 凡人都有得意日


I have seen ordinary people suddenly become important. This is a case of every dog has its day.



　　(22)What is done by night appears by day: 若要人不知，除非己莫为"Crime does not pay. Criminals will be found out. That's why we say : What is done by night appears by day.


《联合早报》

"Not" 的巧用
大家都知道, 说话和写文章是有很大的不同的, 说话讲求的是能够清楚地表达自己的意思, 因此在用字上要力求简单扼要, 但重点部份要强调出来. 你能够清楚地掌握这个重点吗? 现在来考考你, 如果有人问你, "Did you break this plate?" 你要强调这不是我干的, 你会怎么说? 你会不会说, "No, I didn't." 但是要注意喔! "No, I didn't" 只是说, "我没有作" 这跟 "不是我干的" 有很大的差别喔.. 那正确的说法应该是怎样? 让我们来看看 "Not" 的用法.

1. Not me. 不是我.

嘿... 没想到这么简单吧! 这种看似简单, 文法也不对的句子, 却是老美天天挂在嘴边的话. 这句话简单明了, 而且把重点 "不是我" 给强调出来. 这是非常好的一个句子. 另外, 老美也很喜欢讲 "Wasn't me." 这跟 "Not me." 都是一样的意思, 同样强调这不是我干的.

还有像以前大家很流行机车联谊, 结果很不幸你的钥匙被恐龙给抽中了, 你就可以望天长叹说, "Oh, not me." (怎么会是我呢?) 或是你也可以说, "Why me?"

2. Not today. 不要今天啦.

这种用法常常用在二个人相约时间的时候. 例如有人找你去看电影, "Do you want to go to see the movie?" 你就可以说, "Oh, not today" 这表示出你还是蛮想去的, 只不过今天不行. 另外 "Not at this moment." 或是 "Not now." 也蛮常用的.

3. Not a word. 保持安静.

"Not a word" 跟 "Be quiet." 一样都是要别人安静下来的意思. 例如你跟朋友去看电影, 结果电影都开演了, 你的朋友还在叽叽喳喳讲个不停, 这时候你就可以跟他说, "Shhhhhhh. Not a word." 或是 "Be quiet." 要是你真的已经很烦了,就说 "Shut up!"

4. Not so fast. 不要那么快啦.

有些男女朋友第一次约会就牵牵手, 如果你是女生, 觉得这样子实在是太快了, 你就可以说, "Hey, not so fast." 同样的, 有些男生去陪女朋友就像例行公事一样, 随便敷衍个二句就想走人, 这时女生就可以说, "Not so fast."

5. Not a chance. 一点机会也没有.

这句话根 "You don't have any chance" 是一样的, 都是表示根本就没有机会. 例如比赛前别人问你, "Can we beat them?" 你就可以说, "Not a chance"

跟 Not a chance 意思相当的句子有很多, 例如 "Not really", "Not in a million years", "Not in my life time" 或是 "Not in your life time" 例如你要跟朋友去打球, 你朋友说, "You man. I'm gonna kick your ass!" 你就可以说, "In your dream, pal! Not in your life time" 意思就是, 作你的大头梦去吧! 我看在你的有生之年是不可能了!

6. Not at all. 一点也不.

这句话通常是用来回答别人的问题, 例如别人问你, "Do you like American food?" 你就可以回答 "Not at all". 这句话强调出一点也不喜欢. 如果只说 "No, I don't like it." 可能多少还会吃一点, 可是 "Not at all" 可能就是连吃都不会想去吃了, 算是全部否定对方的回答.

如果是部份否定的话, 你可以说 "Not really" 表示你不全然同意对方所说的话. 像是同样如果别人问你, "Do you like American food?" 你说 "Not really." 就表示出你不是那么喜欢.

7. Not good enough. 还不够好.

这句话是专门用来挑剔别人用的. 例如小孩考了八十分就很兴奋地跑去跟父母说, "I got 80 in the test!" 他父母如果是那种比较严苛一点的人的话, 可能就会说, "Not good enough." 或是你也可以泼别人冷水, 例如别人说, "That book is awesome!" 你就可以回他一句, "Not good enough for me."


8. Not again 不会再来一次吧.

当有什么倒霉事第一次发生时, 你可以笑笑地说 bad luck 或是 rotten luck. 但是当第二次又接著发生了, 你大概就会说, "No, not again" 例如车子爆胎了, 你刚拿去补完才出汽车修理店门口又被一根铁钉刺到, 我想任何正常人的反应一定都是 No, not again 吧!



9. Not possible. 不可能.

这个 not possible 跟 impossible 是一样的意思. 可是就算有了 impossible 这个字, 很多老美还是喜欢说 not possible. 可能是这个 not 比较能强较出 "不"的意思吧! 例如有人问你可不可以在半小时内到某地会面, 你就可以说, "Not possible, it's rush hour now."

10. Not a soul in sight. 半个人影也没有.

这句话算是固定的用法. Soul 在这里就是指人而言. 如果讲的不是人而是其它的东西的话, 则用 "Not a thing." 例如别人问你, "Did you see anything in the bush?" 要是你什么也没看到, 你就可以回答, "Not a thing."
表示“正在进行”的be＋介词短语
表示“正在进行”这一动作，通常用现在进行时表示。如：I am having a class now．（我正在上课。）但“正在进行”这一动作，还可以用“be＋介词短语”来表示。常见的介词短语类型有： be ＋at引导的介词短语；be ＋in引导的介词短语；be ＋on引导的介词短语； be ＋under引导的介词短语等。

Ⅰ．be＋at引导的介词短语

be at war（正在交战）：The two countries are at war now．两国正在交战。

（相当于：The two countries are waging a war now．）

be at work（正在工作）：Jim is at work on his car now．吉姆正在修自己的车。

（相当于：Jim is repairing his car now．）

be at peace（处于和平或平静状态）：

Thus Europe was at peace for the first time in ten years．

于是欧洲在十年以后第一次进入和平状态。

be at table（正在吃饭）：When I arrived my friends were already at table．

当我到达时，我的朋友们正在吃饭。

常见的这类结构还有：be at meeting正在开会；be at school正在上学；be at breakfast（lunch ／supper）正在吃早（午／晚）饭；be at church正在做礼拜，等等。

Ⅱ．be＋in引导的介词短语

be in progress（正在进展）：The building of the bridge is in progress．

这座桥梁正在施工中。（相当于：The bridge is being built now．）

be in trade（正在做买卖）：Some people of this country are in gold and ivory trade．

这个国家的有些人正在做黄金和象牙买卖。

be in fashion（流行）： Long hair is very much in fashion now．如今，留长发正时兴。

be in trouble（处于困境／困难之中）：I am in great trouble．My little boy has fallen off a ladder and hurt himself．我遇上点麻烦，我的小儿子从梯子上掉下来，并且摔伤了。

常见的这类结构还有：be in danger处在危险中；be in operation正在运行； be in action在活动（运转／战斗）中；be in peril在危险之中；be in class正在上课；be in hospital正在住院；be in office在执政；be in tears正在流泪；be in milk正在产奶；be in issue正在争论之中；be in church正在做礼拜；等等。

Ⅲ．be＋on引导的介词短语

be on strike（正在罢工）：The electricity workers have been on strike for several weeks now．电力工人到目前已经罢工好几个星期了。（即现在仍在罢工）

be on leave（正在休假）：Several soldiers are on leave in our village．几位军人正在我们村子里休假。

be on the rise（正在上涨）：Prices of vegetables are on the rise．蔬菜价格正在上涨。

常见的这类结构还有：be on a visit正在访问；be on the stumps处在困难之中；be on sale正在出售（美语作：削价出售），等等。

Ⅳ．be ＋under引导的介词短语

be under consideration（正在考虑之中）：The plan is under consideration by the Ministry of Education．教育部正在考虑这项计划。

be ＋under construction（正在修建中）：The new railway is still under construction．新铁路仍在修筑之中。

be ＋under discussion（正在讨论之中）：That issue has no relation to the matter under discussion．那个问题和正在讨论的事没有关系。

常见的这类结构还有：be under treatment正在治疗中；be under repair正在修理中，等等。

值得英语学习者注意的是

⑴尽管be＋介词短语能表示“正在进行”这一意义，但它和be＋现在分词所表示的语法意义是有差别的。前者着重事物所处的状态，偏重于静态；后者着重事物的动态，集中表示事物的动感。

⑵绝大部分这类结构，其名词前都没有冠词，假如加一冠词，意义将大相径庭。如：The Conservative Party is in office．保守党在执政。The principal is now in the office．校长现在在办公室。英语学习者对上述差别决不可掉以轻心。

★起形容词作用的分词（形容词型分词）★
记得前两天有旺友问“动词+ed"作形容词的问题，刚好张道真的一本语法书上有很详细的介绍，准备把它拿到这和大家共享。有点长，而我打字又慢，慢慢输吧，争取在7-10天内完成：）

起形容词作用的分词（形容词型分词）


a. 分词作定语的用法

1)总的特点
分词可以作定语，修饰或是限制一个名词，可以放在它前面，也可以放在它后面。一般说来，简单分词可以放在名词前面，分词短语放在名词后面。

a)放在名词前面的分词
1/表示动作的分词：
一个现在分词或过去分词放在名词前时，可以表示一时的动作，这时它的动词特点胜过形容词特点，相当于一个定语从句

Do you see the rising sun(=sun which is rising) in the east?

They tried to surround the retreating troops (=troops which were retreating).

The roaring lion frightened all the animals in the jungle.

They tried to deliver the besieged city (=city which was being besieged).

These repeated efforts(=efforts which were being repeated) were still inadequate.

Those oppressed nations (=nations that are being oppressed ) are rising to liberate themselves.

2/表示特点的分词：
它也可以表示比较长久或永久性的特点。这时它的形容词特点胜过它的动词特点：

Germs are living creatures (=not inanimate things, creatures that can live).

She is a charming lady (attractive lady, lady who charms others)

The working classes are usually poor.

There were many flying fish.

We watched the moving pictures (=motion pictures)

Used cars (=old cars,cars which have been used) are cheaper than new ones/

Stolen love (=Secret love, love which is stolen), though dangerous, tastes exceptionally sweet.

This printed matter may be sent by mail.

3/和用作形容词的动名词的差别：
用在名词前的现在分词和用在名词前起形容词作用的动名词是有区别的，从意思上、重音上及是否加连字号，都有区别。下面各对句子中，第一句中带-ing词尾的动词为分词，第二句中带-ing词尾的动词为动名词：

Boiling water(=Water that is boiling) can produce enormous power.
Water begins to boil at the boiling-point(=point at which liquid boils;而不是point which boils).

He is a walking dictionary (=dictionary that canwalk, learned man).
He came with a walking-stick (=stick for walking;非stick that os walking)

How clever that dancing bear (=bear that is dancing) is!
He is a dancing-master (=master who teaches dancing).

Someone said many years ago that China was a sleeping lion (=lion that was sleeping).
He is in the sleeping-car (=car for sleeping,而不是 car that is sleeping).

Running water is cleaner than stagnant water.
It is a running-track for sportsmen.

4/用作名词的情况
和形容词一样，某些分词在加the时（后面不跟名词），可以代表一类人或一种抽象东西：
Which are more numerous, the dead or the living (=the living people)

Something must be done immediately with the wounded and the dying.

What should we do with the oppressed, the defeated the insulted and the injured?

Can we say anything about the unseen (=the thing unseen) and the unknown (=the thing unknown)?


放在名词后的分词
放在名词后的分词多数是分词短语，它可以变成一个定语从句（尽管定语从句不一定都能变成分词短语）：

1/表示一时动作的分词短语：
The danger threatening the world (=which is threatening the area ) is too many people with too little food.

They looked on at the city being attacked by the enemy (=which was being attacked by the enemy).

The man being followed by guards (=who are being followed by guards) is a party leader.

2/表示长久特点的分词短语：
A man respecting others (=who respects others ) will be respected.

Can you teach a boy refusing to be taught (=who refuses to be taught)?

It is difficult to save a man enchanted by the beauty of a woman.

Books called the comics (=that are called the comics ) are sometimes harmful to children.

Any books well read (=that are well read ) are good books and any men well treated are good men.




放在名词后的分词
放在名词后的分词多数是分词短语，它可以变成一个定语从句（尽管定语从句不一定都能变成分词短语）：

1/表示一时动作的分词短语：
The danger threatening the world (=which is threatening the area ) is too many people with too little food.

They looked on at the city being attacked by the enemy (=which was being attacked by the enemy).

The man being followed by guards (=who are being followed by guards) is a party leader.

2/表示长久特点的分词短语：
A man respecting others (=who respects others ) will be respected.

Can you teach a boy refusing to be taught (=who refuses to be taught)?

It is difficult to save a man enchanted by the beauty of a woman.

Books called the comics (=that are called the comics ) are sometimes harmful to children.

Any books well read (=that are well read ) are good books and any men well treated are good men.




2)名词前作定语的分词
a)用在名词前的不及物现在分词
名词前的现在分词多数为不及物动词：
The trembling criminal hung his head.

Do you see the floating bridge there?

She is a doting mother.

The existing situation will last some years.

In the field are nodding trees, murmuring rivulets, smiling flowers, singing birds, swimming ducks and playing children.

He is an uncompromising diplomat.

It proves futile in spite of all untiring efforts.

This upright man always takes an unswerving course.

It is an unavailing plot.

There is an undying friendship between them.

b)用在名词前的及物现在分词
1/意义上的宾语为‘人’的情况：
及物动词的分词也可用在名词前面，但它们大多表示情绪。它们的意义上的宾语指一般人或某些人，是不说出的。
It is a charming story=It is a story that charms us (me,you or anyone).

We have an encouraging prospect. =We have a prospect that encourages us.

This exciting experience made him sleepless. =This experience, which excited him, made him sleepless.

It is an interesting (or surprising, amazing, moving, entertaining, affecting ) story.

He has a puzzling problem to solve.

In the forest there happened a shocking (or frightening ) case of murder.

Her fascinating eyes and her tempting mouth put you in a reverie.

It is a misleading statement, a deceiving promise.

An unconvincing rumor spread over the city.

2/意义上的宾语为‘物’的情况：
有少数及物动词的分词，它们的意义上的宾语也不说出， 却是指‘物’的，这时要经过琢磨才知道宾语是什么：
It is an arresting sight (=a sight that arrests somebody's attention), an imploring look (=a look that implores somebody's help), a revealing story (= a story that reveals things hidden or kept secret), a deserving cause (=a cause that deserves sympathy or help).

He is a grasping attorney (an attorney who are eager to grasp money).

A knowing man (=a man who knows all the secret),
an understanding man (a man who understands others' feelings),
a forbidding headmaster (=a headmaster who forbids others to approach or to like him),
a loving father (=a father who loves children or others),
a promising youth (a youth who promises to suceed),
a designing businessman (=a bisinessman who designs some intrigues),
an unfeeling judge (=judge who feels no sympathy),
an unforgiving father (=a father who does not forgive any fault),
an unthinking playboy(=a playboy who does not think of the consequences)
an unsparing housewife (=housewilfe who does not spare money),
an unassuming scholar (=a scholar who does not assume importance),
an unpretending manager (=a manager who does not pretend importance).



c)用在名词前的及物过去分词
1/一般过去分词：
及物动词的过去分词常可用在名词前作它的修饰语。它表示同句谓语动词所表示的动作发生时正在被进行的一个动作，也可以表示那时之前一个被动动作的后果：
He is an honoured abd respected professor (=professor who is honoued and respected).

We live in a crowded area.

The oppressed natons are beginning to rise.

The persecuted patriot hid himself in the jungle.

I drink boiled water (=water that has been boiled before, but is no more boiled and is free from germs now ).

There are many trained nurses (=nurses who have been trained before, but are efficient now) in this hospital.

Don't tread on the broken glass (=glass that has been broken before, but may hurt somebody's feet now).

Used cars cost cheaper than new ones.

There are thousands of wounded soldiers in this lost battle.

He is a qualified teacher.

2/已失去动词特点的分词：
a/以-en(或-n)结尾的过去分词
有不少过去分词已失去动词特点，成为纯粹的形容词，它们有些以-en(或-n)结尾：
His honesty is a proven fact.

I like frozen fruit.

This is the tomb of forgotten heroes.

How hot is molten iron?

It is said the devil has cloven hoofs.

Some drunken sailors are fighting in the street.

Do you see the hidden meaning of this letter?

下面词组中也包含这种分词：
driven snow, woven thread, sawn timber, hewn timber, a sunken cheek, shrunken clothes, a rotten egg, a shorn lamb, a gaven image, a terror-stricken child, a down-trodden people, ill-gotten money, a swollen face, a carven image, his broken promise.

b/带un-前缀的过去分词：
"That is an unfounded rumour." "No, it is an undoubted fact."

There are unnumbered (or untold) crimes in this small city.

The enemy suddenly attacked this unguarded city.

His unaffected (or unfeigned) manners make me love him.

A rich man has to hear unearned praise from time to time.

What is the most important thing for an underdeveloped country?

That is an unheard-of (=extraordinary) case of murder.

He bacame the owner of undreamt-of wealth.

An unlooked-for (=unexpected) love letter came to me this morning.

An unwished-for (or unhoped-for )(=undesirable ) accident happened to me.

Nobody can stand this uncalled-for (=unnecessary and improper) insult.

c/有特别意义的过去分词：
有少数过去分词，用做纯粹的形容词时，意思发生一些变化，已不再是做动词时的意思，如动词celebrate表示‘庆祝’，但形容词celebrated却表示‘著名的’：
This is a celebrated city.

This is the most noted (=famous) mounain in Japan.

He is a confirmed pickpocket (=pickpocket who is unlikely to be changed).

He is a past-master (=one who has much experience) in deceit.

He will suffer for his ill-advised (=unwise) action.

I have never seen such a beautiful place in my born days (=in my lifetime).

d/有主动意义的过去分词：
大多数过去分词都有被动意思，例如 the unforgotten hero 的意思是 the hero that has been forgotten,又如 boiled water的意思是water that has been boiled. 但有少数过去分词却有主动意思，它们甚至起及物动词作用，可以有一个说不出的宾语。例如 a drunken sailor 意思是a sailor who has drunk too much liquor.
A learned scholar (=A scholar who has leanred very mush ) usually looks silly.

Experienced men (=Men who have experienced a lot) in this matter are not numerous.

A practised man (=A man who has often practised doing this) can do more than a greenhorn.

These cultivated people (=These people, who have cultivated their minds ) are my good friends.

The king loves his devoted subjects (=his subjects, who devotes themselves to him ).

A dissipated youth (=A youth who dissipates his time and money ) will ruin himself.

Is a contented man (=a man who contents himself with what he has ) always happy?

The mistaken traveller has had a narrow escape.

d)用在名词前的宾补动词的过去分词
某些宾补动词的过去分词可以用在名词前面做定语。这是一类特殊的宾补动词，它们用在下面这类句子中：
They declared him to be a traitor.

They proved the statement to be false.

He professed himself to be a scientist.

下面句子包含了以这类动词作定语的过去分词
This is the reputed scene (= the place which is reputed to be the scene ) of robbery.

John is the supposed father (=the man who is supposed to be the father) of this child.

He is an avowed member (= a man who has avowed himself to be a member ) of this party.

He is a professed scientist.

The confessed (or admitted ) thief was sent to prison.

e)用在名词前的不及物动词的过去分词
有几十个不及物动词的过去分词可用在名词前作定语。它们多数表示一种变化，表示一种完成的动作，一种状态。它们已失去动词的特点，不再有被动意义，几乎成了形容词：
A retired official (=An official who has retired or is retired) lives next door.

He is a returned student (=a student who has returned from abroad).

The decayed tooth should be pulled off.

A married man is more stable in character than a bachelor.

Thousands of people mourned for the deceased actress.

Both fading and faded flowers were blown about in the strong wind.

Here and there were decaying or decayed leaves.

We see changing and changed modes of life every year and every day.

下面词组中各包含一个这样的过去分词：
abdicted emperor, obsconed debtor, aged poet, arrived guest, assembled company, eloped pair, escaped prisoner, failed candidate, fallen angel, fled robber, perjured witness, travelled writter
departed glories, expired lease, foregone conclusion, mouldered temple, risen sun, rotten fruit, shrunken clothes, sunken rocks, vanished civilization, withered leaves, well-read and well-behaved young man, plain-spoken politician, free-spoken man, full-grown girl, full-blown roses

3)在名词后作定语的分词
分词也可以放在它们所修饰的名词的后面
a)简单分词
简单分词，不管是现在分词还是过去分词，放在名词后的情况是比较少的，但在下面情况下可以放在名词后面：
1/如果它受到强调，感到像一个从句：
I want to know the person coming (=who comes or is coming)

Who were the people participating (=who participated )?

I went into the room adjoining---and saw something I can't tell.

No man living can do that.

I went to meet her at the plane indicated (=which had been indicated).

They threw into prison all the persons all the persons suspected (=who were suspected).

The prisioner acquitted went home directly.

The matter being investgiated (=that is being investigated) is a military secret.

The work being done (=that was being done ) prevented his from going.

下面词组中各包含一个这样的词
The money spent, the day appointed, the fact alleged, the reason given, the plan suggested, the party interested, the guests invited.

2/如果它用来进行对比：
The visitors coming and going are so numerous.

He is a person revered and beloved.

In many countries, word spoken are different from words written.

3/如果名词是一个不关紧要的词或被修饰的是一个代词：
Those remaining had to wait two days more.

Virtue is a thing unseen.

He is like one charmed.

All involved will be sent to jail.

The point controverted is insignificant.

4/如果名词前有一个形容词最高级或类似的形容词：
This is the most difficult job known.

He is the fattest man living

The chief (or only, one) guest invited was me.

This is the only chance left.

We welcomed every client (or all clients) coming.

Every man arriving received a gift.

5/如果分词和其他词构成固定词组（短语）：
I will stay here for the time being.

We danced for two days running.

They were at daggers drawn.

I know the bank concerned.

The votes cast represent their opinion.

There is 20 dollars remaining.

6/如果分词前加so或thus：
Fish thus (or so) cooked is delicous.

Money thus (or so) earned is money stolen.

7/如果分词是某些特定的词 （这时分词也可以放在名词前面）：
He is a poet born (or born poet)

He is a novelist born and bred (or a born and bred novelist).

An artist born and brought up (or a born and brought up artist ) must be different from an ordinary man.

The terms above-metioned (or -cited, -specified,-said, -named) should be carried out.

The person before- (or afore-) metioned died in 1950.

The expected visitor came in the year following at the time appointed.



分词短语
1/现在分词短语：
现在分词短语必须放在所修饰名词的后面，它相当于一个包含一般时或进行时谓语的从句（完成分词不能这样用）：
It is a question puzzling (=that puzzles) many people.
(带有宾语）（比较：It is a puzzling question.)

He was a businessman growing(=that grew ) rich in recent years.
(带有补语)（比较：He is a growing boy.)

The gentleman talking (=who is talking ) so loudly is my uncle.
(带有副词) （比较：Can you read her talking eyes?)

The lady visiting (=who visited) us from time to time taught us French. (带有副词短语）

The girl coming to learn music is only siz years old. (带有不定式作状语）

"Anybody getting up as soon as the cock crows will be rewarded," said my father. (带有状语从句）

2/过去分词短语：
过去分词短语也必须放在所修饰的名词后面，它相当于一个被包含有被动谓语的定语从句，这个谓语可以是完成时态，也可以是一般时态。 若分词是被动进行形式（即由being开头的短语），这个谓语又可以是进行时态。
Dogs cruelly treated (=which have been cruelly treated ) will be vicious. (带有副词）

The woman abandoned (=who had been abandoned) by her husband called on me one day. （带有副词短语）

I drink water boiled (=which has been boiled) at least ten minutes.

Book called (=that are called ) the comics may be harmful to children. (带有补语）

Boys disciplined (=who are disciplined) when they are yong will become good citizens. (带有状语从句）

I shall study the subject being studied (=which is being studied) by so many students. (带有being)

The text-book being used (=which is being used) in this school is "Let Us Learn French".


c)前面带as的分词
连词as可以用在分词前面
The news as arriving (=The news as it arrives, Such news as arrives( today is not believable. (There may be different news).

The results as proclaimed (=The results as they have been proclaimed, Such results as have been proclaimed) in today's newspaper are encouraging.

His ability as displayed during the last three months was inadequate.

I will tell you a story as told by my mother.
b.作主语补语的分词
现在分词和过去分词都可以用在is,was,grow,feel这类系动词后做补语（亦称表语）。由于它们修饰解释主语，可以称作主语补语：
It is interesting (or charming, astonishing, exciting).（这些表示情绪的现在分词这里用作纯粹的形容词，尽管看起来像谓语动词，却不是谓语动词。）

He was interested (or charmed, astonished,excited). 这些表示情绪的过去分词，这里也是用作纯粹的形容词。）

She is very (or greatly) delighted (or disgusted, concerned, pleased). (带有表示程度的副词）

He felt interested (or charmed, astonished, excited, annoyed, assured ).

He appears (or seems ) pretending (or sparing, unthinking, grasping, forbidding).

It looks decayed (or withered, rotten, sunken).

He remains unsatisfied; the matter remains unsettled and untouched.

His illness continued unchanged.

He became excited (or discouraged).

He got scolded.

He grew tired of life.

The situation proves encouraging.

c.作宾语补语的分词
分词也可用在see,hear,set,make,keep这类宾补动词后，作宾语的补语，修饰或谈及宾语的情况，他们称为宾语补语。它们仍具有动词的特点，可以有宾语、补语及修饰语。另外，如果这些宾补动词表示感官作用，它们可以转变为及物动词，同时现在分词或过去分词可以变成that从句中的谓语动词：

I saw(宾补动词) him（宾语） running（现在分词作宾补） off. (=I saw（及物动词） that he was running or ran（谓语动词） off)

I found(宾补动词) those people（宾语） working（现在分词） hard. (=I found（及物动词） that those people were working or worked（谓语动词） hard.)

They heard her singing.

Did you notice that fellow stealing it?

I saw the thief caught by policemen. (=I saw that the thief was caught by the policemen.)

Do your own yourself defeated?(=Do you own that you have been defeated?)

He declared himself satisfied.

I must see everything done properly.

I found everything changed.

如果宾补动词不表示感官作用，分词则不能变为that从句中的谓语动词：
He left his children playing in the street.

The joke set all of them laughing.

They must keep the pot boiling.

I have kept you waiting a long time.

He sent the ball flying.

They caught him doing evil.

I can't make myself understood.

His actions make him respected, but not his words.

I have a house built on the mountain.

Please get thie luggage carried into the room.

分词也可由being 开始：
He watched the pictures being hung on the wall.

I found myself being looked after by ten servants. (=I found that I was being looked after by ten servants.)

在某些宾补动词后，现在分词前可加连词as:
He described the city as expressing the modern idea of speed.

He quoted Confucius as saying this.

He recorded the movement as beginning a new era.

He accepted me as having seen much of the world.

The results show their lessons as having been neglected.

He looked upon the accident as being caused by a grave misunderstanding.

在个别动词的被动结构后也可带as的分词短语：
The story was told as having happened to himself.

An old man was represented as standing among his sons.

I was given a dictionary as being the best students.

d.作解释性修饰语得分词
作为解释性修饰语，它常常放在主语后面或前面，由逗号把它和主语分开，就像一个作状语的分词一样。但是作状语的分词可以表示时间、原因、条件、让步等，可改为一个状语从句，并修饰谓语动词。作解释性修饰语的分词若说明伴随的情况时，不能变为状语从句，这时对主语的说明多于对谓语的说明。对下面两对句子加以比较，就可看出这两种用法的差别：
Gasping and excited(作状语的分词),Richard aroused suspicion. (=Because he gasped and was excited, Richard aroused suspicion.)
Gasping and excited(作解释性修饰语的分词),Richard arrived home. (Approximately=Richard gasped and was excited when he arived home;或Richard gasped and was excited, and thus he arrived home.)

Not seen by anyone(作状语的分词),David stole the watch. (=As he was not seen by anyone, David stole the watch)
Not seen by anyone(), David ran past. (Approxinately=David was not seen by anyone when he ran past;或David was not seen by anyone, and thus he ran past.)

下面是一些包含有解释性修饰语的句子：
Shivering and greatly ashamed, Lilian lowered her head.
Starving, John wandered about.
Kneeling and shutting her eyes, Mary prayed to the goddess.
Bleeding and fainting, he waited for the ambulance.
Closing the door, he shut out the beggar.
Shouting aloud, he called to me.
Walking along the bank, the poet sang a sorrowful song.
Dressed in while, she suddenly appeared.
Supported by his sons, the old man came out.
这些分词放在主语后时最不强调，放在句末时强调意义最明显
Richard,gasping and excited, arrived home.
David, not seen by anyone, ran past.
Mary, kneeling and shutting her eyes, prayed to the goddess.(只有主语为名词时，分词才可放在它后面，如果是代词，譬如说he,就不能放在这个位置.)

@9401
The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating under competitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it.
　　An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers. In the American economy, this mechanism is provided by a price system, a process in which prices rise and fall in response to relative demands of consumers and supplies offered by seller-producers. If the products is in short supply relative to the demand, the price will be bid up and some consumers will be eliminated from the market. If, on the other hand, producing more of a commodity results in reducing its cost, this will tend to increase the supply offered by seller-producers, which in turn will lower the price and permit more consumers to buy the product. Thus, price is the regulating mechanism in the American economic system.
　　The important factor in a private-enterprise economy is that individuals are allowed to own productive resources (private property), and they are permitted to hire labor, gain control over natural resources, and produce goods and services for sale at a profit. In the American economy, the concept of private property embraces not only the ownership of productive resources but also certain rights, including the right to determine the price of a product or to make a free contract with another private individual.

@9403
　　Exceptional children are different in some significant way from others of the same age. For these children to develop to their full adult potential, their education must be adapted to those differences.
　　Although we focus on the needs of exceptional children, we find ourselves describing their environment as well. While the leading actor on the stage captures our attention, we are aware of the importance of the supporting players and the scenery of the play itself. Both the family and the society in which exceptional children live are often the key to their growth and development. And it is in the public schools that we find the full expression of society's understanding — the knowledge, hopes, and fears that are passed on to the next generation.
　　Education in any society is a mirror of that society. In that mirror we can see the strengths, the weaknesses, the hopes, the prejudices, and the central values of the culture itself. The great interest in exceptional children shown in public education over the past three decades indicates the strong feeling in our society that all citizens, whatever their special conditions, deserve the opportunity to fully develop their capabilities.
　　"All men are created equal." We've heard it many times, but it still has important meaning for education in a democratic society. Although the phrase was used by this country's founders to denote equality before the law, it has also been interpreted to mean equality of opportunity. That concept implies educational opportunity for all children — the right of each child to receive help in learning to the limits of his or her capacity, whether that capacity be small or great. Recent court decisions have confirmed the right of all children — disabled or not — to an appropriate education, and have ordered that public schools take the necessary steps to provide that education. In response, schools are modifying their programs, adapting instruction to children who are exceptional, to those who cannot profit substantially from regular programs.

@9405
　　Discoveries in science and technology are thought by "untaught minds" to come in blinding flashes or as the result of dramatic accidents. Sir Alexander Fleming did not, as legend would have it, look at the mold on a piece of cheese and get the idea for penicillin there and then. He experimented with antibacterial substances for nine years before he made his discovery. Inventions and innovations almost always come out of laborious trial and error. Innovation is like soccer; even the best players miss the goal and have their shots blocked much more frequently than they score.
　　The point is that the players who score most are the ones who take the most shots at the goal — and so it goes with innovation in any field of activity. The prime difference between innovators and others is one of approach. Everybody gets ideas, but innovators work consciously on theirs, and they follow them through until they prove practicable or otherwise. What ordinary people see as fanciful abstractions, professional innovators see as solid possibilities.
　　"Creative thinking may mean simply the realization that there's no particular virtue in doing things the way they have always been done," wrote Rudolph Flesch, a language authority. This accounts for our reaction to seemingly simple innovations like plastic garbage bags and suitcases on wheels that make life more convenient: "How come nobody thought of that before?"
　　The creative approach begins with the proposition that nothing is as it appears. Innovators will not accept that there is only one way to do anything. Faced with getting from A to B, the average person will automatically set out on the best-known and apparently simplest route. The innovator will search for alternate courses, which may prove easier in the long run and are bound to be more interesting and challenging even if they lead to dead ends.
　　Highly creative individuals really do march to a different drummer.




@9504
　　Personality is to a large extent inherent — A-type parents usually bring about A-type offspring. But the environment must also have a profound effect, since if competition is important to the parents, it is likely to become a major factor in the lives of their children.
　　One place where children soak up A characteristics is school, which is, by its very nature, a highly competitive institution. Too many schools adopt the "win at all costs" moral standard and measure their success by sporting achievements. The current passion for making children compete against their classmates or against the clock produces a two-layer system, in which competitive A-types seem in some way better than their B-type fellows. Being too keen to win can have dangerous consequences: remember that Pheidippides, the first marathon runner, dropped dead seconds after saying: "Rejoice, we conquer!"
　　By far the worst form of competition in schools is the disproportionate emphasis on examinations. It is a rare school that allows pupils to concentrate on those things they do well. The merits of competition by examination are somewhat questionable, but competition in the certain knowledge of failure is positively harmful.
　　Obviously, it is neither practical nor desirable that all A youngsters change into B's. The world needs types, and schools have an important duty to try to fit a child's personality to his possible future employment. It is top management.
　　If the preoccupation of schools with academic work was lessened, more time might be spent teaching children surer values. Perhaps selection for the caring professions, especially medicine, could be made less by good grades in chemistry and more by such considerations as sensitivity and sympathy. It is surely a mistake to choose our doctors exclusively from A- type stock. B's are important and should be encouraged.

@9505
　　That experiences influence subsequent behaviour is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering. Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory. Constant practice has such as effect on memory as to lead to skilful performance on the piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences.
　　Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals. Indeed, when one's memory of an emotionally painful experience lead to serious anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.
　　In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time, since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out, providing clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability would suffer, for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be. Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion. This forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species.
　　Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting. In this view, continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output). Indeed, there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned. Such data offers gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance.

@9602
　　With the start of BBC World Service Television, millions of viewers in Asia and America can now watch the Corporation's news coverage, as well as listen to it.
　　And of course in Britain listeners and viewers can tune in to two BBC television channels, five BBC national radio services and dozens of local radio station. They are brought sport, comedy, drama, music, news and current affairs, education, religion, parliamentary coverage, children's programmes and films for an annual licence fee of ￡83 per household.
　　It is a remarkable record, stretching back over 70 years — yet the BBC's future is now in doubt. The Corporation will survive as a publicly-funded broadcasting organisation, at least for the time being, but its role, its size and its programmes are now the subject of a nation-wide debate in Britain.
　　The debate was launched by the Government, which invited anyone with an opinion of the BBC — including ordinary listeners and viewers — to say what was good or bad about the Corporation, and even whether they thought it was worth keeping. The reason for its inquiry is that the BBC's royal charter runs out in 1996 and it must decide whether to keep the organisation as it is, or to make changes.
　　Defenders of the Corporation — of whom there are many — are fond of quoting the American slogan. "If it ain't broke, don't fix it." The BBC "ain't broke", they say, by which they mean it is not broken (as distinct from the word "broke", meaning having no money), so why bother to change it?
　　Yet the BBC will have to change, because the broadcasting world around it is changing. The commercial TV channels — ITV and Channel 4 — were required by the Thatcher Government's Broadcasting Act to become more commercial, competing with each other for advertisers, and cutting costs and jobs. But it is the arrival of new satellite channels — funded partly by advertising and partly by viewers' subscriptions — which will bring about the biggest changes in the long term.
@9605
　　Rumor has it that more than 20 books on creationism/evolution are in the publisher's pipelines. A few have already appeared. The goal of all will be to try to explain to a confused and often unenlightened citizenry that there are not two equally valid scientific theories for the origin and evolution of universe and life. Cosmology, geology, and biology have provided a consistent, unified, and constantly improving account of what happened. "Scientific" creationism, which is being pushed by some for "equal time" in the classrooms whenever the scientific accounts of evolution are given, is based on religion, not science. Virtually all scientists and the majority of non-fundamentalist religious leaders have come to regard "scientific" creationism as bad science and bad religion.
　　The first four chapters of Kitcher's book give a very brief introduction to evolution. At appropriate places, he introduces the criticisms of the creationists and provides answers. In the last three chapters, he takes off his gloves and gives the creationists a good beating. He describes their programmes and tactics, and, for those unfamiliar with the ways of creationists, the extent of their deception and distortion may come as an unpleasant surprise. When their basic motivation is religious, one might have expected more Christian behavior.
　　Kitcher is philosopher, and this may account, in part, for the clarity and effectiveness of his arguments. The non-specialist will be able to obtain at least a notion of the sorts of data and argument that support evolutionary theory. The final chapter on the creationists will be extremely clear to all. On the dust jacket of this fine book, Stephen Jay Gould says: "This book stands for reason itself." And so it does — and all would be well were reason the only judge in the creationism/evolution debate.

@9701
　　It was 3:45 in the morning when the vote was finally taken. After six months of arguing and final 16 hours of hot parliamentary debates, Australia's Northern Territory became the first legal authority in the world to allow doctors to take the lives of incurably ill patients who wish to die. The measure passed by the convincing vote of 15 to 10. Almost immediately word flashed on the Internet and was picked up, half a world away, by John Hofsess, executive director of the Right to Die Society of Canada. He sent it on via the group's on-line service, Death NET. Says Hofsess: "We posted bulletins all day long, because of course this isn't just something that happened in Australia. It's world history."
　　The full import may take a while to sink in. The NT Rights of the Terminally Ill law has left physicians and citizens alike trying to deal with its moral and practical implications. Some have breathed sighs of relief, others, including churches, right-to-life groups and the Australian Medical Association, bitterly attacked the bill and the haste of its passage. But the tide is unlikely to turn back. In Australia — where an aging population, life-extending technology and changing community attitudes have all played their part — other states are going to consider making a similar law to deal with euthanasia. In the US and Canada, where the right-to-die movement is gathering strength, observers are waiting for the dominoes to start falling.
　　Under the new Northern Territory law, an adult patient can request death —probably by a deadly injection or pill—to put an end to suffering. The patient must be diagnosed as terminally ill by two doctors. After a "cooling off" period of seven days, the patient can sign a certificate of request. After 48 hours the wish for death can be met. For Lloyd Nickson, a 54-year-old Darwin resident suffering from lung cancer, the NT Rights of Terminally Ill law means he can get on with living without the haunting fear of his suffering: a terrifying death from his breathing condition. "I'm not afraid of dying from a spiritual point of view, but what I was afraid of was how I'd go, because I've watched people die in the hospital fighting for oxygen and clawing at their masks," he says.

@9702
　　A report consistently brought back by visitors to the US is how friendly, courteous, and helpful most Americans were to them. To be fair, this observation is also frequently made of Canada and Canadians, and should best be considered North American. There are, of course, exceptions. Small-minded officials, rude waiters, and ill-mannered taxi drivers are hardly unknown in the US. Yet it is an observation made so frequently that it deserves comment.
　　For a long period of time and in many parts of the country, a traveler was a welcome break in an otherwise dull existence. Dullness and loneliness were common problems of the families who generally lived distant from one another. Strangers and travelers were welcome sources of diversion, and brought news of the outside world.
　　The harsh realities of the frontier also shaped this tradition of hospitality. Someone traveling alone, if hungry, injured, or ill, often had nowhere to turn except to the nearest cabin or settlement. It was not a matter of choice for the traveler or merely a charitable impulse on the part of the settlers. It reflected the harshness of daily life: if you didn't take in the stranger and take care of him, there was no one else who would. And someday, remember, you might be in the same situation.
　　Today there are many charitable organizations which specialize in helping the weary traveler. Yet, the old tradition of hospitality to strangers is still very strong in the US, especially in the smaller cities and towns away from the busy tourist trails. "I was just traveling through, got talking with this American, and pretty soon he invited me home for dinner — amazing." Such observations reported by visitors to the US are not uncommon, but are not always understood properly. The casual friendliness of many Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial, but as the result of a historically developed cultural tradition.
　　As is true of any developed society, in America a complex set of cultural signals, assumptions, and conventions underlies all social interrelationships. And, of course, speaking a language does not necessarily mean that someone understands social and cultural patterns. Visitors who fail to "translate" cultural meanings properly often draw wrong conclusions. For example, when an American uses the word "friend", the cultural implications of the word may be quite different from those it has in the visitor's language and culture. It takes more than a brief encounter on a bus to distinguish between courteous convention and individual interest. Yet, being friendly is a virtue that many Americans value highly and expect from both neighbors and strangers.


@9805
  Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots. Unlike most of the world’s volcanoes, they are not always found at the boundaries of the great drifting plates that make up the earth’s surface; on the contrary, many of them lie deep in the interior of a plate. Most of the hot spots move only slowly, and in some cases the movement of the plates past them has left trails of dead volcanoes. The hot spots and their volcanic trails are milestones that mark the passage of the plates.
   That the plates are moving is now beyond dispute. Africa and South America, for example, are moving away from each other as new material is injected into the seafloor between them. The complementary coastlines and certain geological features that seem to span the ocean are reminders of where the two continents were once joined. The relative motion of the plates carrying these continents has been constructed in detail, but the motion of one plate with respect to another, cannot readily be translated into motion with respect to the earth’s interior. It is not possible to determine whether both continents are moving in opposite directions or whether one continent is stationary and the other is drifting away from it. Hot spots, anchored in the deeper layers of the earth, provide the measuring instruments needed to resolve the question. From an analysis of the hot-spot population it appears that the African plate is stationary and that it has not moved during the past 30 million years.
The significance of hot spots is not confined to their role as a frame of reference. It now appears that they also have an important influence on the geophysical processes that propel the plates across the globe. When a continental plate comes to rest over a hot spot, the material rising from deeper layers creates a broad dome. As the dome grows, it develops deep fissures (cracks); in at least a few cases the continent may break entirely along some of these fissures, so that the hot spot initiates the formation of a new ocean. Thus just as earlier theories have explained the mobility of the continents, so hot spots may explain their mutability (inconstancy).

@9901
    It’s a rough world out there. Step outside and you could break a leg slipping on your doormat. Light up stove and you could burn down the house. Luckily, if the doormat or stove failed to warn of coming disaster, a successful lawsuit might compensate you for your troubles. Or so the thinking has gone since the early 1980s, when juries began holding more companies liable for their customers’ misfortunes.
    Feeling threatened, companies responded by writing ever-longer warning labels, trying to anticipate every possible accident. Today, stepladders carry labels several inches long that warn, among other things, that you might —surprise! — fall off. The label on a child’s Batman cape cautions that the toy “does not enable user to fly.”
    While warnings are often appropriate and necessary — the dangers of drug interactions, for example — and many are required by state or federal regulations, it isn’t clear that they actually protect the manufacturers and sellers from liability if a customer is injured. About 50 percent of the companies lose when injured customers take them to court.Now the tide appears to be turning. As personal injury claims continue as before, some courts are beginning to side with defendants, especially in cases where a warning label probably wouldn’t have changed anything. In May, Julie Nimmons, president of Schutt Sports in Illinois, successfully fought a lawsuit involving a football player who was paralyzed in a game while wearing a Schutt helmet. “We’re really sorry he has become paralyzed, but helmets aren’t designed to prevent those kinds of injuries,” says Nimmon. The jury agreed that the nature of the game, not the helmet, was the reason for the athlete’s injury. At the same time, the American Law Institute — a group of judges, lawyers, and academics whose recommendations carry substantial weight — issued new guidelines for tort law stating that companies need not warn customers of obvious dangers or bombard them with a lengthy list of possible ones. “Important information can get buried in a sea of trivialities,” says a law professor at Cornell Law School who helped draft the new guidelines. If the moderate end of the legal community has its way, the information on products might actually be provided for the benefit of customers and not as protection against legal liability.

@0001
    A history of long and effortless success can be a dreadful handicap, but, if properly handled, it may become a driving force. When the United States entered just such a glowing period after the end of the Second World War, it had a market eight times larger than any competitor, giving its industries unparalleled economies of scale. Its scientists were the world’s best, its workers the most skilled. America and Americans were prosperous beyond the dreams of the Europeans and As ians whose economies the war had destroyed.
     It was inevitable that this primacy should have narrowed as other countries grew richer. Just as inevitably, the retreat from predominance proved painful. By the mid-1980s Americans had found themselves at a loss over their fading industrial competitiveness. Some huge American industries, such as consumer electronics, had shrunk or vanished in the face of foreign competition. By 1987 there was only one American television maker left, Zenith. (Now there is none: Zenith was bought by South Korea’s LG Electronics in July.) Foreign-made cars and textiles were sweeping into the domestic market. America’s machine-tool industry was on the ropes. For a while it looked as though the making of semiconductors, which America had invented and which sat at the heart of the new computer age, was going to be the next casualty.
     All of this caused a crisis of confidence. Americans stopped taking prosperity for granted. They began to believe that their way of doing business was failing, and that their incomes would therefore shortly begin to fall as well. The mid-1980s brought one inquiry after another into the causes of America’s industrial decline. Their sometimes sensational findings were filled with warnings about the growing competition from overseas.
     How things have changed! In 1995 the United States can look back on five years of solid growth while Japan has been struggling. Few Americans attribute this solely to such obvious causes as a devalued dollar or the turning of the business cycle. Self-doubt has yielded to blind pride. “American industry has changed its structure, has gone on a diet, has learnt to be more quick-witted,” according to Richard Cavanagh, executive dean of Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government. “It makes me proud to be an American just to see how our businesses are improving their productivity,” says Stephen Moore of the Cato Institute, a thing-tank in Washington, DC. And William Sahlman of the Harvard Business School believes that people will look back on this period as “a golden age of business management in the United States.”

@0002
     Being a man has always been dangerous. There are about 105 males born for every 100 females, but this ratio drops to near balance at the age of maturity, and among 70-year-olds there are twice as many women as men. But the great universal of male mortality is being changed. Now, boy babies survive almost as well as girls do. This means that, for the first time, there will be an excess of boys in those crucial years when they are searching for a mate. More important, another chance for natural selection has been removed. Fifty years ago, the chance of a baby (particularly a boy baby) surviving depended on its weight. A kilogram too light or too heavy meant almost certain death. Today it makes almost no difference. Since much of the variation is due to genes, one more agent of evolution has gone.
     There is another way to commit evolutionary suicide: stay alive, but have fewer children. Few people are as fertile as in the past. Except in some religious communities, very few women have 15 children. Nowadays the number of births, like the age of death, has become average. Most of us have roughly the same number of offspring. Again, differences between people and the opportunity for natural selection to take advantage of it have diminished. India shows what is happening. The country offers wealth for a few in the great cities and poverty for the remaining tribal peoples. The grand mediocrity of today — everyone being the same in survival and number of offspring — means that natural selection has lost 80% of its power in upper-middle-class India compared to the tribes.
     For us, this means that evolution is over; the biological Utopia has arrived. Strangely, it has involved little physical change. No other species fills so many places in nature. But in the past 100,000 years — even the past 100 years — our lives have been transformed but our bodies have not. We did not evolve, because machines and society did it for us. Darwin had a phrase to describe those ignorant of evolution: they “look at an organic being as a savage looks at a ship, as at something wholly beyond his comprehension.” No doubt we will remember a 20th century way of life beyond comprehension for its ugliness. But however amazed our descendants may be at how far from Utopia we were, they will look just like us.

@0003
     When a new movement in art attains a certain fashion, it is advisable to find out what its advocates are aiming at, for, however farfetched and unreasonable their principles may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal. With regard to Futurist poetry, however, the case is rather difficult, for whatever Futurist poetry may be — even admitting that the theory on which it is based may be right — it can hardly be classed as Literature.
     This, in brief, is what the Futurist says: for a century, past conditions of life have been conditionally speeding up, till now we live in a world of noise and violence and speed. Consequently, our feelings, thoughts and emotions have undergone a corresponding change. This speeding up of life, says the Futurist, requires a new form of expression. We must speed up our literature too, if we want to interpret modern stress. We must pour out a large stream of essential words, unhampered by stops, or qualifying adjectives, or finite verbs. Instead of describing sounds we must make up words that imitate them; we must use many sizes of type and different colored inks on the same page, and shorten or lengthen words at will.
     Certainly their descriptions of battles are confused. But it is a little upsetting to read in the explanatory notes that a certain line describes a fight between a Turkish and a Bulgarian officer on a bridge off which they both fall into the river — and then to find that the line consists of the noise of their falling and the weights of the officers: ‘Pluff! Pluff! A hundred and eighty-five kilograms.’
     This, though it fulfills the laws and requirements of Futurist poetry, can hardly be classed as Literature. All the same, no thinking man can refuse to accept their first proposition: that a great change in our emotional life calls for a change of expression. The whole question is really this: have we essentially changed?

@0005
   If ambition is to be well regarded, the rewards of ambition — wealth, distinction, control over one’s destiny — must be deemed worthy of the sacrifices made on ambition’s behalf. If the tradition of ambition is to have vitality, it must be widely shared; and it especially must be highly regarded by people who are themselves admired, the educated not least among them. In an odd way, however, it is the educated who have claimed to have given up on ambition as an ideal. What is odd is that they have perhaps most benefited from ambition — if not always their own then that of their parents and grandparents. There is a heavy note of hypocrisy in this, a case of closing the barn door after the horses have escaped — with the educated themselves riding on them.
   Certainly people do not seem less interested in success and its signs now than formerly. Summer homes, European travel, BMWs — the locations, place names and name brands may change, but such items do not seem less in demand today than a decade or two years ago. What has happened is that people cannot confess fully to their dreams, as easily and openly as once they could, lest they be thought pushing, acquisitive and vulgar. Instead, we are treated to fine hypocritical spectacles, which now more than ever seem in ample supply: the critic of American materialism with a Southampton summer home; the publisher of radical books who takes his meals in three-star restaurants; the journalist advocating participatory democracy in all phases of life, whose own children are enrolled in private schools. For such people and many more perhaps not so exceptional, the proper formulation is, “Succeed at all costs but avoid appearing ambitious.”
   The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, where they are not extremely unattractive. As a result, the support for ambition as a healthy impulse, a quality to be admired and fixed in the mind of the young, is probably lower than it has ever been in the United States. This does not mean that ambition is at an end, that people no longer feel its stirrings and promptings, but only that, no longer openly honored, it is less openly professed. Consequences follow from this, of course, some of which are that ambition is driven underground, or made sly. Such, then, is the way things stand: on the left angry critics, on the right stupid supporters, and in the middle, as usual, the majority of earnest people trying to get on in life.

@0103
    Why do so many Americans distrust what they read in their newspapers? The American Society of Newspaper Editors is trying to answer this painful question. The organization is deep into a long self-analysis known as the journalism credibility project.
    Sad to say, this project has turned out to be mostly low-level findings about factual errors and spelling and grammar mistakes, combined with lots of head-scratching puzzlement about what in the world those readers really want.
    But the sources of distrust go way deeper. Most journalists learn to see the world through a set of standard templates (patterns) into which they plug each day’s events. In other words, there is a conventional story line in the newsroom culture that provides a backbone and a ready-made narrative structure for otherwise confusing news.
    There exists a social and cultural disconnect between journalists and their readers, which helps explain why the “standard templates” of the newsroom seem alien to many readers. In a recent survey, questionnaires were sent to reporters in five middle-size cities around the country, plus one large metropolitan area. Then residents in these communities were phoned at random and asked the same questions.
    Replies show that compared with other Americans, journalists are more likely to live in upscale neighborhoods, have maids, own Mercedeses, and trade stocks, and they’re less likely to go to church, do volunteer work, or put down roots in a community.
    Reporters tend to be part of a broadly defined social and cultural elite, so their work tends to reflect the conventional values of this elite. The astonishing distrust of the news media isn’t rooted in inaccuracy or poor reportorial skills but in the daily clash of world views between reporters and their readers.
    This is an explosive situation for any industry, particularly a declining one. Here is  a troubled business that keeps hiring employees whose attitudes vastly annoy the customers. Then it sponsors lots of symposiums and a credibility project dedicated to wondering why customers are annoyed and fleeing in large numbers. But it never seems to get around to noticing the cultural and class biases that so many former buyers are complaining about. If it did, it would open up its diversity program, now focused narrowly on race and gender, and look for reporters who differ broadly by outlook, values, education, and class.

@0105
    When I decided to quit my full time employment it never occurred to me that I might become a part of a new international trend. A lateral move that hurt my pride and blocked my professional progress prompted me to abandon my relatively high profile career although, in the manner of a disgraced government minister, I covered my exit by claiming “I wanted to spend more time with my family”.
    Curiously, some two-and-a-half years and two novels later, my experiment in what the Americans term “downshifting” has turned my tired excuse into an absolute reality. I have been transformed from a passionate advocate of the philosophy of “having it all”, preached by Linda Kelsey for the past seven years in the pages of She magazine, into a woman who is happy to settle for a bit for everything.
     I have discovered, as perhaps Kelsey will after her much-publicized resignation from the editorship of She after a build-up of stress, that abandoning the doctrine of “juggling your life”, and making the alternative move into “downshifting” brings with it far greater rewards than financial success and social status. Nothing could persuade me to return to the kind of life Kelsey used to advocate and I once enjoyed: 12-hour working days, pressured deadlines, the fearful strain of office politics and the limitations of being a parent on “quality time”.
     In America, the move away from juggling to a simpler, less materialistic lifestyle is a well-established trend. Downshifting — also known in America as “voluntary simplicity” — has, ironically, even bred a new area of what might be termed anti-consumerism. There are a number of bestselling downshifting self-help books for people who want to simplify their lives; there are newsletters, such as The Tightwad Gazette, that give hundreds of thousands of Americans useful tips on anything from recycling their cling-film to making their own soap; there are even support groups for those who want to achieve the mid- ’90s equivalent of dropping out.
     While in America the trend started as a reaction to the economic decline — after the mass redundancies caused by downsizing in the late ’80s — and is still linked to the politics of thrift, in Britain, at least among the middle-class downshifters of my acquaintance, we have different reasons for seeking to simplify our lives.
     For the women of my generation who were urged to keep juggling through the ’80s, down-shifting in the mid- ’90s is not so much a search for the mythical good life — growing your own organic vegetables, and risking turning into one — as a personal recognition of your limitations.


目　　　录
        考查目标…………………………………………………………………………        00        中　外　教　育　史        一、中国古代教育制度……………………………………………………………        11
        考试形式和试卷结构……………………………………………………………        00                二、中国近代教育制度……………………………………………………………        12
教　育　学　原　理        一、教育学概述…………………………………………………………………        01                三、中国现代教育制度……………………………………………………………        13
        二、教育的产生与发展…………………………………………………………        01                一、外国古代教育制度……………………………………………………………        13
        三、教育与社会发展……………………………………………………………        02                二、外国近代教育制度……………………………………………………………        14
        四、教育与人的身心发展………………………………………………………        02                三、外国现代教育制度……………………………………………………………        14
        五、教育目的……………………………………………………………………        03        教　育　心　理　学        一、教育心理学概述………………………………………………………………        16
        六、教育制度……………………………………………………………………        03                二、心理发展与教育………………………………………………………………        16
        七、课程…………………………………………………………………………        03                三、学习及其理论解释……………………………………………………………        17
        八、教学…………………………………………………………………………        04                四、学习动机………………………………………………………………………        17
        九、德育…………………………………………………………………………        06                五、知识的建构……………………………………………………………………        18
        十、教师与学生…………………………………………………………………        06                六、技能的形成……………………………………………………………………        18
中　外　教　育　史        一、先秦时期教育思想…………………………………………………………        07                七、学习策略及其教学……………………………………………………………        18
        二、秦、汉、魏、晋、南北朝时期教育思想…………………………………        08                八、问题解决能力与创造性的培养………………………………………………        19
        三、隋、唐、元、明、清早期主要教育思想…………………………………        08                九、社会规范学习与品德发展……………………………………………………        19
        四、晚清教育思想………………………………………………………………        08        教　育　研　究　方　法        一、教育研究方法概述……………………………………………………………        20
        五、民国早期教育思想…………………………………………………………        09                二、教育研究的选题与设计………………………………………………………        21
        六、早期马克思主义教育思想…………………………………………………        09                三、教育文献检索…………………………………………………………………        21
        七、民主教育家教育思想………………………………………………………        09                四、教育观察研究…………………………………………………………………        22
        一、外国古代教育思想…………………………………………………………        09                五、教育调查研究…………………………………………………………………        22
        二、外国近代教育思想…………………………………………………………        10                六、教育实验研究…………………………………………………………………        23
        三、外国现代教育思想…………………………………………………………        11                七、教育研究报告的撰写…………………………………………………………        23


I.总体考查目标
教育学专业基础综合考试涵盖教育学原理、中外教育史、教育心理学和教育研究方法等学科基础课程。要求考生系统掌握上述教育学学科的基本理论、基本知识和基本方法，能够运用所学的基本理论、基本知识和基本方法分析、判断和解决有关理论问题和实际问题。
II.分科考查目标
教育学原理        1．正确识记教育学的基本事实和基本概念，准确理解教育学的基本问题和基本理论。
2．能够把握当前教育理论的发展动态和教育实践中的重点、难点问题。
3．能够运用教育学的基本理论分析教育的现实问题，具有分析和解决教育实践问题的能力。
中外教育史        1．系统掌握中外教育史的基本知识，了解教育思想演变、教育制度发展、教育实施进程的基本线索，特别是主要教育家的教育思想、重要的教育制度、重大的教育事件。
2．认真阅读有关中外教育思想、教育制度和教育实施的基本文献，特别是其中的代表性材料，培养严谨、踏实的学风。
3．能够运用辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的观点分析、评价中外教育史实，揭示特点与规律，总结经验与教训，为现实的教育改革与发展提供理论启示。
教育心理学        1．了解教育心理学的发展历程及其主要实验事实，理解和掌握教育心理学的基本概念、基本原理及其对教育工作的启示。
2．运用教育心理学的基本规律和主要理论，说明和解释有关教育现象，解决有关教育教学实际问题。
教育研究方法        1．了解教育研究及其方法的历史、现状与发展趋势，理解教育研究方法的重要术语、基本概念，掌握教育研究方法的一般原理及主要研究方法。
2．具有进行教育研究选题及研究方案设计、查阅文献资料、收集和分析研究资料、撰写研究报告和学术论文等的初步能力。
3．能够运用教育研究原理分析和评论教育研究设计、成果及典型案例，具有分析问题和解决问题的能力。
III. 试卷满分及考试时间
本试卷满分为300分，考试时间为180分钟。
IV. 答题方式
闭卷、笔试
V. 试卷考查各部分内容分值
（一）必答题为270分，各部分内容所占分值为：
教育学原理　100分
教育心理学　 40分
教育研究方法 30分
中外教育史　100分
（二）必选题为30分，考生必须在两道试题中选取一道作答。第I道试题考查教育心理学的内容，第II道试题考查教育研究方法的内容。考生若两题都回答，只按第I道试题的成绩计人总分。
VI. 试卷题型结构
单项选择题 45小题，每小题  2分，共90分
辨析题　　  3小题，每小题 10分，共30分
简答题　　  6小题，每小题 15分，共90分
分析论述题  3小题，每小题 30分，共90分
V.考查内容

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        一、教育学概述        （一）教育学的研究对象               
                （二）教育学的研究任务               
                （三）教育学的历史与未来        1.“教育学”概念的起源与演化        西方国家中“教育学”概念的起源与演化
                                中国历史上“教育学”概念的出现与发展
                        2．教育学的发展阶段        教育学的萌芽
                                独立形态教育学的产生
                                20世纪教育学的多元化发展
                        3．教育学的未来发展趋势        教育学问题领域的扩大
                                教育学研究学科基础的扩展
                                教育学研究范式的多样化
                                教育学的进一步分化与综合
                                教育学与教育改革的关系日益密切
                                教育学的学术交流与合作日益广泛
                （四）教育学的若干基本问题        1．教育学的理论性与实践性关系问题       
                        2．教育学的本土化与国际化关系问题       
                        3．教育学的科学性与价值性关系问题       
        二、教育的产生与发展        （一）教育的定义        1.“教育”的词源        中国“教育”概念的词源
                                西方“教育”概念的词源
                        2．教育的定义        中国有代表性的“教育”定义
                                西方有代表性的“教育”定义
                （二）教育的构成要素        1．关于教育构成要素的诸种观点       
                        2．教育的基本构成要素       
                （三）教育的本质        1．教育的本质问题       
                        2．教育本质的论争       
                        3．教育本质讨论的理论与实践价值       
                （四）教育的发展历程        1．教育的起源        生物起源说
                                心理起源说
                                劳动起源说
                        2．教育的发展        原始社会的教育
                                古代社会的教育
                                现代社会的教育


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        三、教育与社会发展        （一）教育的社会制约性        1．生产力对教育发展的影响和制约       
                        2．政治经济制度对教育发展的影响和制约       
                        3．文化传统对教育发展的影响和制约       
                        4．人口状况对教育发展的影响和制约       
                （二）教育的社会功能        1．教育的经济功能       
                        2．教育的政治功能       
                        3．教育的文化功能       
                        4．教育的人口功能       
                （三）教育与现代化        1．教育现代化        教育现代化的内涵
                                教育现代化的内容
                        2．教育在社会主义现代化建设中的战略地位        1982战略重点之一1987突出战略位置
                                1992优先发展战略地位1995科教兴国战略
                                1997优先发展战略2002实施优先发展战略
                        3．科教兴国、人才强国与创新型国家建设        科教兴国与人才强国战略的提出；
                                创新型国家建设与创新型人才培养
                                创新型人才培养与教育创新
        四、教育与人的身心发展        （一）人的身心发展及其规律        1．人的身心发展的含义       
                        2．人的身心发展的理论        认知发展理论；智力发展理论；
                                道德发展理论；需要层次理论等
                        3．人的身心发展的一般规律       
                （二）人的身心发展的主要影响因素        1．遗传素质在人的身心发展中的作用        遗传素质的定义
                                遗传素质在人的身心发展中的作用
                        2．环境在人的身心发展中的作用        环境的内涵
                                环境在人的身心发展中的作用
                        3．学校教育在人的身心发展中的作用        学校教育的内涵
                                学校教育在人的身心发展中的作用
                                学校教育主导作用有效发挥的条件
                        4．个体因素在人的身心发展中的作用        个体因素的内涵
                                个体因素在人的身心发展中的作用

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        五、教育目的        （一）教育目的概述        1．教育目的的概念        教育目的的定义
                                教育目的与教育方针的关系
                        2．教育目的的作用       
                        3．教育目的的类型        社会本位论
                                个人本位论
                                “教育无目的论”
                        4．教育目的的确立依据       
                （二）马克思主义关于人的全面发展学说        1．马克思主义关于人的全面发展学说的思想渊源       
                        2．马克思主义关于人的全面发展的科学含义       
                        3．马克思主义论人的全面发展必须具备的社会条件       
                        4．马克思主义人的全面发展学说与当代教育实践       
                （三）我国的教育目的        1．建国以来各个时期的教育目的       
                        2．我国教育目的的精神实质       
                        3．实施教育目的的基本要求       
                （四）全面发展教育的组成部分        1．全面发展教育的组成部分       
                        2．全面发展教育各组成部分之间的关系       
        六、教育制度        （一）教育制度概述        1．教育制度与学校教育制度        教育制度的概念
                                学校教育制度的概念
                        2．学制确立的依据       
                （二）新中国成立以来的学制及其改革        1. 1951年的学制       
                        2. 1958年的学制改革       
                        3．改革开放以来的教育体制改革        1985年《中共中央关于教育体制改革的决定》
                                1993年《中国教育改革和发展纲要》
                                1999关于深化教育改革，全面推进素质教育的决定
                                2001年《国务院关于基础教育改革与发展的决定》
        七、课程        （一）课程与课程理论        1．课程的定义及其不同观点       
                        2．课程理论流派        经验主义课程论
                                学科中心主义课程论
                                社会改造主义课程论
                                存在主义课程论
                                后现代主义课程论


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        七、课程        （一）课程与课程理论（接上页）               
                （二）课程类型        1．课程类型的概念       
                        2．主要的课程类型        学科课程与活动课程；综合课程与分科课程
                                显性课程与隐性课程；必修课程与选修课程
                                国家课程、地方课程与校本课程
                （三）课程的组织与实施        1．课程目标        课程目标的概念
                                课程目标的特征
                                确定课程目标的方法
                        2．课程内容        课程计划
                                课程标准
                                教科书及其他课程资源
                        3．课程实施        课程实施的取向
                                影响课程实施的因素
                        4．课程评价        课程评价及其意义
                                课程评价的功能
                                课程评价的主要类型
                                课程评价的主要模式
                （四）课程改革的发展趋势        1．影响课程变革的主要因素        政治因素与课程变革
                                经济因素与课程变革
                                文化因素与课程变革
                                科技革新与课程变革
                                学生发展与课程变革
                        2．我国新一轮基础教育课程改革        新一轮基础教育课程改革的背景
                                新一轮基础教育课程改革的理念
                                新一轮基础教育课程改革的目标
                                新一轮基础教育课程改革的内容
        八、教学        （一）教学概述        1．教学的概念        教学的定义
                                教学与教育、智育、上课的区别
                        2．教学的意义       
                        3．教学的主要任务       
                （二）教学理论及其主要流派        1．教学理论概述        教学理论的概念
                                教学理论与学习理论、课程理论的区别
                                教学理论形成和发展的脉络
                        2．当代主要教学理论流派        行为主义教学理论
                                认知教学理论
                                情感教学理论

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        八、教学        （一）教学概述（接上页）               
                （二）教学理论及其主要流派（接上页）               
                （三）教学过程        1．教学过程概述        教学过程的概念
                                教学过程的本质
                                教学过程的基本要素与基本矛盾
                        2．教学过程中应处理好的几种关系        间接经验与直接经验的关系
                                掌握知识与培养思想品德的关系
                                掌握知识与提高能力的关系
                                智力因素与非智力因素的关系
                                教师主导作用与学生主体作用的关系
                （四）教学模式        1．教学模式概述        教学模式的概念
                                教学模式的特点
                                教学模式的结构
                        2．当代国外主要教学模式        程序教学模式
                                发现教学模式
                                掌握学习教学模式
                                暗示教学模式
                                非指导性教学模式
                        3．当代我国主要教学模式       
                （五）教学原则        1．教学原则的概念及确立依据       
                        2．我国中小学常用的教学原则        直观性原则；启发性原则；系统性原则；巩固性原则；
                                量力性原则；思想性和科学性统一的原则；
                                理论联系实际原则；因材施教原则
                （六）教学组织形式        1．教学组织形式概述        教学组织形式的概念
                                教学组织形式的历史发展
                        2．班级授课制及其意义        班级授课制的由来及发展
                                班级授课制的主要特征
                                对班级授课制的评价
                        3．教学组织形式的改革       
                （七）教学方法        1．教学方法的概念及意义       
                        2．中小学常用的教学方法        讲授；谈话；讨论；实验；实习作业；练习；参观
                （八）教学工作的基本环节               

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　学　原　理        九、德育        （一）德育概述        1．德育的概念与意义       
                        2．德育的任务和内容       
                （二）德育过程        1．德育过程概述        德育过程的概念
                                德育过程的要素
                        2．德育过程规律       
                （三）德育原则、方法和途径        1．德育原则        德育原则的概念
                                我国中小学常用的德育原则
                        2．德育方法        德育方法的概念
                                我国中小学主要的德育方法
                        3．德育途径       
                （四）当前我国学校德育改革        1．当前我国学校德育改革的背景       
                        2．当前我国学校德育存在的主要问题       
                        3．当前我国学校德育改革的主要趋势       
        十、教师与学生        （一）教师        1．教师的地位与作用        教师的概念
                                教师的地位
                                教师的作用
                        2．教师的职责和角色       
                        3．教师的专业素质       
                        4．教师专业化        教师专业化的内涵
                                教师资格制度
                （二）学生        1．学生的基本属性       
                        2．学生的社会地位        学生的权利；学生的义务
                        3．师生关系        师生关系的概念
                                师生关系的特点
                                新型师生关系的建立

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——中国教育思想史        一、先秦时期教育思想        （一）诸子百家教育思想        1、孔丘的教育思想        创办私学与编订“六经”
                                “庶、富、教”
                                “性相近也，习相远也”
                                “有教无类”
                                “学而优则仕”
                                论教学内容
                                论教学方法
                                论道德教育
                                论教师
                        2、孟轲的教育思想        孟柯与思孟学派；
                                “性善论”与教育作用
                                “明人伦”与教育目的
                                “大丈夫”的人格理想
                                “深造自得”的教学思想
                        3、荀况的教育思想        “六经”传人
                                “性恶论”与教育作用
                                培养“大儒”的教育目的
                                以儒经为教学内容
                                “闻见知行”结合的教学方法
                                论教师
                        4、墨家的教育思想        “农与工肆之人”的代表
                                “素丝说”与教育作用
                                培养“兼士”的教育目的
                                以科技和思维训练为特色的教育内容
                                主动、创造的教育方法
                        5、道家的教育思想        老庄对社会文明的批判
                                “人法自然”与教育作用
                                “逍遥”的人格理想
                                提倡怀疑的学习方法
                        6、法家的教育思想        倡导“耕战”的学派
                                “人性利己说”与教育作用
                                禁诗书与“以法为教”
                                禁私学与“以吏为师”
                （二）战国后期的教育论著        1、《大学》       
                        2、《中庸》       
                        3、《学记》       
                        4、《乐记》       
科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——中国教育思想史        二、秦、汉、魏、晋、南北朝时期教育思想        （一）董仲舒教育思想        1、《对贤良策》与三大文教政策       
                        2、论人性与教育作用       
                        3、论道德教育       
                （二）王充的教育思想        1、对神学的批判       
                        2、关于教育作用与培养目标       
                        3、论学习       
        三、隋、唐、元、明、清早期主要教育思想        （一）韩愈的教育思想        1、振兴儒学的卫道者       
                        2、“性三品说”与教育作用       
                        3、关于人才培养和选拔思想       
                        4、论尊师重道       
                （二）朱熹与理学教育思想        1、朱熹与《四书章句集注》；       
                        2、“明天理，灭人欲”与教育作用       
                        3、“大学”和“小学”教育       
                        4、“朱子读书法”       
                （三）王守仁与心学教育思想        1、王守仁与“阳明学派”；       
                        2、“致良知”与教育作用       
                        3、“随人分限所及”的教育原则       
                        4、“六经皆史”与教学内容       
                        5、论儿童教育       
                （四）早期启蒙教育思想               
                （五）颜元的学校改革思想        1、对传统教育的批判       
                        2、“实德实才”的教育目的       
                        3、“实行”的教学方法       
                        4、“六斋”与“实学”教育内容       
        四、晚清教育思想        （一）“中体西用”思想与张之洞的《劝学篇》        1、“中体西用”思想的形成和发展       
                        2、张之洞与《劝学篇》       
                        3、“中体西用”的历史作用和局限       
                （二）维新派教育思想        1、康有为的教育思想        维新运动中的教育改革主张
                                《大同书》的教育理想
                        2、梁启超的教育思想        “开民智”、“伸民权”与教育作用
                                培养“新民”的教育目的
                                论学制
                                论师范教育、女子教育和儿童教育
                        3、严复的教育思想        “鼓民力”、“开民智”、“兴民德”的“三育论”
                                “体用一致”的文化教育观


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——中国教育思想史        五、民国早期教育思想        （一）蔡元培教育思想与近代资产阶级教育        1、“五育并举”的教育方针       
                        2、改革北京大学的教育实践       
                        3、教育独立思想       
                （二）新文化运动时期和20年代的教育思潮        1、职业教育思潮       
                        2、实用主义教育思潮       
                        3、科学教育思潮       
                        4、国家主义教育思潮       
        六、早期马克思主义教育思想        （一）杨贤江与马克思主义教育理论        1、早期马克思主义者的教育思想       
                        2、论教育本质       
                        3、“全人生指导”与青年教育       
        七、民主教育家教育思想        （一）黄炎培的职业教育实践        1、职业教育的探索       
                        2、职业教育思想体系       
                （二）晏阳初的乡村教育实验        1、“四大教育”与“三大方式”       
                        2、“化农民”与“农民化”       
                （三）梁漱溟的乡村教育建设        1、乡村建设和乡村教育理论       
                        2、乡村教育的实施       
                （四）陈鹤琴的“活教育”探索        1、儿童教育和“活教育”实验       
                        2、“活教育”思想体系       
                （五）陶行知的“生活教育”理论        1、“为中国教育寻觅曙光”       
                        2、“生活教育”理论体系       
中外教育史—外国教育思想史        一、外国古代教育思想        （一）古希腊教育家的教育思想        1、苏格拉底的教育思想        教育目的论
                                德育论
                                智育论
                                “苏格拉底方法”
                        2、柏拉图的教育思想        “学习即回忆”
                                《理想国》中的教育观
                        3、亚里士多德的教育思想        灵魂论与教育
                                教育作用论
                （二）古罗马教育家的教育思想        1、西塞罗的教育思想       
                        2、昆体良的教育思想       
                        3、奥古斯丁的教育思想       


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史—外国教育思想史        二、外国近代教育思想        1、西欧近代主要教育思想        1．夸美纽斯的教育思想        论教育的目的和作用
                                论教育适应自然的原则
                                论普及教育和统一学制
                                论学年制和班级授课制
                                论教学原则
                                论道德教育
                                教育管理思想
                        2．卢梭的教育思想        论人的天性
                                自然教育理论
                                公民教育理论
                        3．裴斯泰洛齐的教育思想        论教育目的
                                论教育心理学化
                                论要素教育
                                建立初等学校各科教学法
                                教育与生产劳动相结合的思想
                        4．赫尔巴特的教育思想        赫尔巴特伦理学的主要内容
                                赫尔巴特心理学的主要内容
                                赫尔巴特的道德教育理论
                                赫尔巴特的课程理论
                                赫尔巴特的教学理论
                        5．福禄培尔的教育思想        论教育的基本原理；幼儿园教育理论
                        6．马克思和恩格斯的教育思想        论教育与社会的关系
                                论教育与社会生产
                                论人的本质和个性形成
                                论人的全面发展与教育的关系
                                论教育与生产劳动相结合的重大意义
                2、欧美主要国家和日本近代其他教育思想        1．英国部分教育家及其教育思想        培根、洛克、斯宾塞、赫胥黎等论教育
                        2．法国部分教育家及其教育思想        爱尔维修、狄德罗、拉夏洛泰、涂尔干等论教育
                        3．德国部分教育家及其教育思想        康德、费希特、第斯多惠等论教育
                        4．俄国部分教育家及其教育思想        乌申斯基论教育
                        5．美国部分教育家及其教育思想        贺拉斯•曼论教育
                        6．日本部分教育家及其教育思想        福泽谕吉论教育

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史—外国教育思想史        三、外国现代教育思想        （一）新教育运动中的主要教育思想        1、梅伊曼、拉伊的实验教育学       
                        2、凯兴斯泰纳的“公民教育”与“劳作学校”理论       
                        3、蒙台梭利的教育思想       
                （二）苏联教育思想        1、马卡连柯的教育思想       
                        2、凯洛夫的教育学说       
                        3、赞科夫的教学理论       
                        4、赞科夫的教学理论       
                （三）现代欧美教育思潮        1．杜威的教育思想        论教育的本质；论教育的目的；论课程与教材；
论思维与教学方法；论道德教育
                        2．改造主义教育       
                        3．要素主义教育       
                        4．永恒主义教育       
                        5．新托马斯主义教育       
                        6．存在主义教育       
                        7. 新行为主义教育       
                        8．结构主义教育       
                        9．分析教育哲学       
                        10．终身教育思潮       
                        11．现代人文主义教育思潮       
中外教育史—中国教育制度史        一、中国古代教育制度        （一）官学制度的建立与“六艺”教育的形成        1．教育起源与学校萌芽的传说       
                        2．西周的教育制度        “学在官府”；大学与小学；国学与乡学；家庭教育
                        3．“六艺”教育       
                （二）私人讲学的兴起与传统教育思想的奠基        1．私人讲学的兴起       
                        2．诸子百家私学的发展       
                        3．齐国的稷下学宫       
                （三）儒学独尊与读书做官教育模式的形成        1．独尊儒术       
                        2．兴办太学       
                        3．建立察举制度       
                （四）封建国家教育体制的完善        1．隋唐时期教育体系的完备        文教政策的探索与稳定
                                中央政府教育管理机构的确立；中央官学体系完备
                                地方官学与私学发展
                        2．科举制度建立        科举制度的萌芽与确立
                                科举考试的程序、科目与方法
                                科举制与学校教育的关系
                                科举制的影响
                        3．中外教育交流开展       

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——中国教育制度史        一、中国古代教育制度        （一）官学制度的建立与“六艺”教育的形成               
                （二）私人讲学的兴起与传统教育思想的奠基               
                （三）儒学独尊与读书做官教育模式的形成               
                （四）封建国家教育体制的完善               
                （五）宋元明清学校的改革与发展        1．科举制度的发展与学校教育的改革        科举制度的发展与“兴文教”政策
                                北宋三次兴学与“三舍法”
                                “苏湖教法”
                        2．书院的发展        书院的产生与发展
                                《白鹿洞书院揭示》与书院教育精神
                                东林书院与书院讲会
                                沽经精舍、学海堂与书院学术研究
                                书院教育的特点
                        3．私塾与蒙学教材        私塾的发展与种类
                                蒙学教材的发展
                                种类和特点
        二、中国近代教育制度        （一）洋务教育的兴起与近代教育的起步        1．封建教育的衰败与改革派的教育主张       
                        2．教会学校的举办       
                        3．洋务学堂的兴办        洋务学堂的举办与类别
                                京师同文馆
                                福建船政学堂
                        4．留学教育的起步        幼童留美
                                派遣留欧
                （二）普及教育思想的提出与近代学制的建立        1．早期改良派的教育主张       
                        2．维新派的教育实践        兴办学堂；兴办学会、发行报刊；
                                创办京师大学堂；改革科举制度
                        3．清末教育新政与近代学制的初步建立        “壬寅学制”和“癸卯学制”的颁布
                                废科举，兴学堂；建立行政体制；制定教育宗旨
                （三）资产阶级民主教育体制的建立        1．民国初年的教育改革        制定教育方针；颁布学制；颁布课程标准
                        2．新文化运动与教育变革        新文化运动与教育观念变革
                                新文化运动与教育改革
                        1922年“新学制”       


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——中国教育制度史        三、中国现代教育制度        （一）南京国民政府的教育建设        1．教育宗旨与教育方针的变迁        “党化主义”教育
                                “三民主义”教育宗旨
                                “战时须作平时看”的教育方针
                        2．教育制度改革        大学院和大学区制的试行
                                “戊辰学制”的颁行
                        3．学校教育发展        初等教育
                                中等教育
                                高等教育
                                抗战时期的学校西迁
                        4．对学校教育的控制加强        中小学校的童子军训练
                                高中以下学生的军训
                （二）新民主主义教育实践        1．新民主主义教育方针的形成        苏维埃文化教育总方针
                                抗日战争时期中国共产党的教育方针政策
                                “民族的、科学的、大众的”文化教育方针
                        2．干部教育        干部在职培训
                                干部学校教育
                                “抗大”
                        3．群众教育       
                        4．普通教育        根据地的小学教育
                                解放区中小学教育的正规化
                                解放区高等教育的整顿与建设
                        5．革命根据地教育的基本经验       
中外教育史——
外国教育制度史        一、外国古代教育制度        （一）东方文明古国的教育        1．巴比伦的教育       
                        2．古代埃及的教育        古代埃及的学校
                                古代埃及学校教育的内容与方法
                        3.古代印度的教育        婆罗门时期的教育
                                佛教教育
                        4．古代东方文明古国教育发展的特点       
                （二）古希腊教育        1．古风时代的教育        斯巴达教育；雅典教育
                        2．古典时代的教育        “智者”的教育活动
                                “智者派”的教育贡献
                        3．希腊化时期的教育       

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——外国教育制度史        一、外国古代教育制度        （一）东方文明古国的教育               
                （二）古希腊教育               
                （三）古罗马教育        1．共和时期的罗马教育       
                        2．帝国时期的罗马教育       
                （四）西欧中世纪教育        1．基督教教育        基督教的教育形式、机构和教育内容
                                基督教的教育思想
                        2．封建主贵族的世俗教育        宫廷学校
                                骑士教育
                        3．中世纪大学的形成与发展       
                        4．新兴市民阶层的形成和城市学校的发展       
                （五）拜占廷与阿拉伯的教育        1．拜占廷的教育       
                        2. 阿拉伯的教育       
                        3．拜占廷和阿拉伯教育的特点及其影响       
        二、外国近代教育制度        （一）文艺复兴与宗教改革时期的教育        1．人文主义教育        意大利人文主义教育
                                北欧人文主义教育
                                人文主义教育的基本特征
                        2．新教教育        路德派新教的教育主张与教育实践
                                加尔文派新教的教育
主张
                                英国国教派的教育主张
                        3．耶稣会与天主教教育       
                （二）欧美主要国家和日本的近代教育制度        1．英国近代教育制度        教育概况
                        2．法国近代教育制度        教育概况
                                法国大革命时期的主要教育改革方案和教育主张
                        3．德国近代教育制度        教育概况
                        4．俄国近代教育制度        教育概况
                        5．美国近代教育制度        教育概况
                        6．日本近代教育制度        教育概况
        三、外国现代教育制度        （一）19c至20c欧美教育思潮和教育实验        1．新教育运动        新教育运动的形成和发展
                                新教育运动中的著名实验
                        2．进步主义教育思潮        进步主义教育运动始末；进步主义教育实验
                                昆西教学法、有机教育学校、葛雷制
                                道尔顿制、文纳特卡计划、设计教学法

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
中外教育史——外国教育制度史        三、外国现代教育制度        （一）19c至20c欧美教育思潮和教育实验               
                （二）欧美主要国家和日本的现代教育制度        1．英国教育的发展        《巴尔福教育法》与教育行政管理体制的变化
                                《费舍教育法》《哈多报告》《斯宾斯报告》
                                《1944年教育法》“罗宾斯原则”“开放大学”
                                《雷沃休姆报告》《1988年教育改革法》
                        2．法国教育的发展        进一步加强国家对教育的控制
                                统一学校运动与学制改革
                                中学课程的改革
                                《阿斯蒂埃法》与职业技术教育的发展
                                《郎之万一瓦隆教育改革方案》
                                《教育改革法》
                                《高等教育方向指导法》（《富尔法案》）
                                《法国学校体制现代化建议》（《哈比改革》）
                                《课程宪章》
                        3．德国教育的发展        德意志帝国与魏玛共和国时期的教育
                                纳粹德国时期的教育方针与教育的倒退
                                《改组和统一公立普通学校教育的总纲计划》
                                《高等学校总纲法》
                        4．美国教育的发展        《中等教育的基本原则》、“八年研究”计划；初级学院运动； “全国职业教育促进会”、《史密斯一休斯法案》；《国防教育法》；生计教育、返回基础
                                《国家在危机中：教育改革势在必行》
                        5．日本教育的发展        《教育救语》、《大学令》
                                军国主义教育体制的形成和发展；
                                教育基本法》和《学校教育法》
                                20世纪70-80年代的教育改革
                        6．苏联教育的发展        教育管理体制改革的内容及成效
                                《统一劳动学校规程》
                                “综合教学大纲”、“劳动教学法”
                                《关于小学和中学的决定》
                                1958年的教育改革；1966年的教育改革
                                俄罗斯的教育改革

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　心　理　学        一、教育心理学概述        （一）教育心理学的研究对象               
                （二）教育心理学的研究任务               
                （三）教育心理学的历史发展        1．教育心理学的起源       
                        2．教育心理学的发展过程       
                        3．教育心理学的研究趋势       
        二、心理发展与教育        （一）心理发展一般规律与教育        1．认知发展的一般规律与教育       
                        2．人格发展的一般规律与教育       
                （二）认知发展理论与教育        1．皮亚杰的认知发展阶段理论       
                        2．维果斯基的文化历史发展理论       
                        3．认知发展理论的教育启示       
                （三）人格发展理论与教育        1．埃里克森的心理社会发展理论       
                        2．柯尔伯格的道德发展阶段理论       
                        3．人格发展理论的教育含义       
                （四）心理发展的差异与教育        1．智能差异与教育       
                        2．人格差异与教育       
                        3．认知方式差异与教育       
                        4．性别差异与教育       
        三、学习及其理论解释        （一）学习的一般概述        1．学习的基本含义       
                        2．学习的分类体系        学习主体分类
                                学习水平分类
                                学习性质分类
                                学习结果分类
                （二）学习的联结理论        1．经典性条件作用说        巴甫洛夫的经典实验
                                经典性条件作用的主要规律
                                华生对经典条件作用的发展
                                经典性条件作用的教育应用
                        2．操作性条件作用说        桑代克的联结一试误说
                                斯金纳的经典实验及行为分类
                                操作性条件作用的主要规律
                                程序教学与行为矫正
                        3．观察学习理论        观察学习的早期探索
                                班都拉的经典实验与发现
                                观察学习的基本过程与条件、教育应用

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　心　理　学        三、学习及其理论解释        （一）学习的一般概述               
                （二）学习的联结理论               
                （三）学习的认知理论        1．早期的认知学习理论        格式塔学派的完形一顿悟说
                                托尔曼的认知一目的说
                                早期认知学习理论的启示
                        2．布鲁纳的认知一发现说        认知学习观
                                结构教学观
                        3．奥苏伯尔的有意义接受说        有意义学习的实质和条件
                                认知同化理论与先行组织策略
                                接受学习的界定及评价
                        4．加涅的信息加工学习理论        学习的信息加工模式
                                学习阶段及教学设计
                （四）学习的建构理论        1．建构主义的思想渊源与理论取向       
                        2．建构主义学习理论的基本观点        知识观
                                学习观
                                教学观
                        3．认知建构主义学习理论与应用       
                        4．社会建构主义学习理论与应用       
        四、学习动机        （一）学习动机的实质及其作用        1．学习动机的含义       
                        2．学习动机的分类       
                        3．学习动机的作用       
                （二）学习动机的主要理论        1．学习动机的强化理论       
                        2．学习动机的人本理论        需要层次理论
                                自由学习理论
                        3．学习动机的认知理论        期望一价值理论
                                成败归因理论
                                自我效能感理论
                                自我价值理论
                （三）学习动机的培养与激发               

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　心　理　学        五、知识的建构        （一）知识及知识建构        1．知识及其类型       
                        2．知识建构的基本机制       
                （二）知识的理解        1．知识理解的类型       
                        2．知识理解的过程       
                        3．影响知识理解的因素       
                （三）错误概念的转变        1．错误概念的性质       
                        2．概念转变及其过程       
                        3．影响概念转变的因素       
                        4．为概念转变而教的策略       
                （四）知识的整合与应用        1．知识的整合与深化       
                        2．知识的应用与迁移       
        六、技能的形成        （一）技能及其作用        1．技能及其特点       
                        2．技能的类型       
                        3．技能的作用       
                （二）心智技能的形成与培养        1．心智技能的原型模拟       
                        2．心智技能的形成过程       
                        3．心智技能的培养方法       
                （三）操作技能的形成与训练        1．操作技能的主要类型       
                        2．操作技能的形成过程       
                        3．操作技能的训练要求       
        七、学习策略及其教学        （一）学习策略的性质与类型        1．学习策略的概念       
                        2．学习策略的结构       
                （二）认知策略及其教学        1．注意策略       
                        2．精细加工策略       
                        3．复述策略       
                        4．编码与组织策略       
                （三）元认知策略及其教学        1．元认知及其作用       
                        2．元认知策略       
                （四）资源管理策略及其教学        1．时间管理策略       
                        2．努力管理策略       
                        3．学业求助策略       


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　心　理　学        八、问题解决能力
与创造性的培养        （一）当代有关能力的基本理论        1．传统智力理论       
                        2．多元智力理论       
                        3．成功智力理论       
                （二）问题解决的实质与过程        1．问题及其问题解决       
                        2．问题解决的基本过程       
                （三）问题解决的影响因素        1．有关的知识经验       
                        2．个体的智能与动机       
                        3．问题情景与表征方式       
                        4．思维定势与功能固着       
                        5．原型启发与酝酿效应       
                （四）问题解决能力的培养        1．充分利用已有经验，形成知识结构体系       
                        2．分析问题的构成，把握问题解决规律       
                        3．开展研究性学习，发挥学生的主动性       
                        4．教授问题解决策略，灵活变换问题       
                        5．允许学生大胆猜想，鼓励实践验证       
                （五）创造性及其培养        1．创造性的基本概念       
                        2．创造性的基本结构       
                        3．创造性培养措施       
        九、社会规范学习与品德发展        （一）社会规范学习与品德发展的实质        1．社会规范学习的含义       
                        2．品德发展的实质       
                （二）社会规范学习的过程与条件        1．社会规范的遵从       
                        2．社会规范的认同       
                        3．社会规范的内化       
                （三）品德的形成过程与培养        1．道德认知的形成与培养       
                        2．道德情感的形成与培养       
                        3．道德行为的形成与培养       
                （四）品德不良的矫正        1．品德不良的含义与类型       
                        2．品德不良的成因分析       
                        3．品德不良的纠正与教育       


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　研　究　方　法        一、教育研究方法概述        （一）教育研究方法的界说        1．教育研究方法的内涵        方法与科学方法的含义
                                教育研究方法及其特性
                        2．教育研究的意义及教育研究方法的价值        教育研究的意义
                                教育研究方法的价值
                （二）教育研究方法的历史、现状和发展趋势        1．教育研究的科学化历程       
                        2．我国教育研究的现状及研究方法上存在的问题       
                        3．教育研究方法演进的主要趋势       
                （三）教育研究方法的基本类型        1．以研究过程的阶段为标准的方法分类        设讨阶段：确定课题、查阅文献、研究设计的方法
                                实施阶段：形成事实的方法、形成理论的方法
                                总结评价阶段：撰写报告的方法、成果评定的方法
                        2．以问题性质为标准的分类        理论方法（归纳、演绎、类比；分析、综合、概括）
                                实证方法（观察、问卷、访谈、测量等）
                                实验研究方法（真实验、准实验等）
                                历史研究方法（文献法、内容分析法等）
                        3．其他分类        教育价值研究与教育事实研究
                                基础研究和应用研究
                                定量研究和定性研究
                （四）教育研究方法的基本原则        1．客观性原则       
                        2．创新性原则       
                        3．理论联系实际原则       
                        4．定量与定性相结合原则       
                        5．伦理原则       
                （五）教育研究方法的一般过程        1．选题与设计阶段        选择课题
                                查阅文献
                                提出假设
                                制定方案
                        2．实施阶段        搜集资料，形成科学事实
                                分析事实或原有理论，形成新理论
                        3．总结与评价阶段        撰写研究报告或学术论文
                                鉴定和评价研究成果

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　研　究　方　法        二、教育研究的选题与设计        （一）选题的主要来源        1．社会变革与发展对教育研究提出的问题       
                        2．学科理论的深化、拓展或转型中产生的问题       
                        3．研究者个人在教育实践中观察与思考产生的问题       
                （二）选题的基本要求        1．问题本身要新颖、有研究价值       
                        2．问题提出有一定的科学理论依据和事实依据       
                        3．问题表述必须具体明确       
                        4．问题研究要有可行性       
                （三）课题研究的设计        1．选择研究对象       
                        2．确定研究方法       
                        3．制定研究计划       
                （四）课题论证的基本内容        1．课题选题的价值       
                        2．对同类研究和相关研究状况把握的准确性与全面性       
                        3．课题研究的基本思路及内容框架的科学性       
                        4．课题研究步骤、方法及手段的合理性       
                        5．课题研究基本条件上的可行性       
        三、教育文献检索        （一）教育文献及其在教育研究中的作用        1．教育文献的含义       
                        2．教育文献在教育研究中的作用        选定研究课题、确定研究方向
                                提供科学的论证依据和研究方法
                                避免重复劳动、提高科学研究的效益
                （二）教育文献的种类及主要分布        1．教育文献的三种等级        一次文献
                                二次文献
                                三次文献
                        2．教育文献的主要分布        书籍；报刊；教育档案；电子信息检索系统
                （三）教育文献检索的基本过程及主要方        1．教育文献检索的基本过程        分析和准备阶段；搜索阶段；加工阶段
                        2．教育文献检索的主要方法        顺查法；逆查法；引文查找法；综合查找法
                        3．现代信息技术在教育文献检索中的应用       
                （四）教育文献检索的要求        1．进行内部评论与外部评论       
                        2．全面、准确地检索教育文献       
                        3．以分析概括为基础，撰写教育文献综述报告       


科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　研　究　方　法        四、教育观察研究        （一）教育观察研究概述        1．教育观察的含义       
                        2．教育观察研究的基本特点        有明确的观察目的；有详实的观察记录
                                对观察对象不加任何干预控制
                        3．教育观察研究的基本原则        目的性；客观性；自觉性
                （二）教育观察研究的基本类型        1．自然情境中的观察与实验室观察       
                        2．直接观察与间接观察       
                        3．参与性观察与非参与性观察       
                        4．结构式观察与非结构式观察       
                （三）教育观察研究的实施程序        1．教育观察的实施程序        界定研究问题，明确观察目的和意义
                                编制观察提纲，进入研究情境
                                实施观察，收集、记录资料
                                分析资料，得出研究结论
                        2．教育观察研究的记录方法        描述记录（日记描述法、轶事记录法、连续记录法）
                                取样记录（时间取样、事件取样）
                                行为核对表
        五、教育调查研究        （一）教育调查研究概述        1．教育调查研究的含义       
                        2．教育调查研究的类型        普遍调查、抽样调查、个案调查
                                现状调查、相关调查、发展调查、预测调查
                                问卷调查、访谈调查、测量调查、调查表法
                        3．教育调查研究的一般步骤        确定调查课题；选择调查对象
                                确定调查方法和手段，编制和选用调查工具
                                制定调查计划；实施调查；整理、分析，撰写报告
                （二）问卷调查        1．问卷调查的特点        调查过程的标准化；调查形式的匿名性
                                调查的范围广、效率高
                        2．问卷的结构        指导语；问题；结束语
                        3．问题的设计        问题设计基本要求；问题形式；问题答案的格式
                （三）访谈调查        1．访谈调查特点        灵活性强；能够使用比较复杂的访谈提纲
                                能够获得直接、可靠的信息和资料
                                不受书面语言文字的限制；容易进行深入调查
                        2．访谈调查的类型        结构性访谈调查和非结构性访谈调查
                                一次性访谈调查和重复性访谈调查
                                个别访谈调查和集体访谈调查
                        3．访谈调查的过程        选择访谈对象；准备访谈提纲和访谈计划；正式访谈

科目        章        节        小节        知识点
教　育　研　究　方　法        六、教育实验研究        （一）教育实验研究概述        1．教育实验研究的含义       
                        2．教育实验研究的基本特点        因果关系的探讨；自变量的操作（进行实验处理）
                                合理控制无关变量
                        3．教育实验研究历史发展的两条基本线索        借鉴、模仿自然科学实验
                                从一般教育活动分化发展而形成
                        4．教育实验研究的主要功能        检验、修改和完善教育理论
                                促进教育实践的改革与发展
                                为新的科学理论假说应用于教育实践寻求操作程序
                        5．教育实验研究的基本程序        教育实验的准备阶段（教育实验研究的设计）
                                教育实验的实施阶段；教育实验的总结推广阶段
                （二）教育实验的基本类型        1．实验室实验与自然实验       
                        2．确认性实验、探索性实验与验证性实验       
                        3．单因索实验与多因素实验       
                        4．前实验、准实验与真实验       
                （三）教育实验研究设计的效度与变量控制        1．教育实验研究效度        教育实验研究效度含义；教育实验研究的内在效度
                                教育实验研究的外在效度
                        2．教育实验的变量控制        教育实验变量控制的内涵；教育实验变量控制的主要方法
                        3．提高教育实验效度的主要措施        使用设计组以平衡；随机匹配或实验组兼作控制组
                                设计控制和统计控制
                （四）教育实验的设计与实施        1．教育实验设计的主要内容        研究假设；自变量、因变量、控制变量
                                实验处理；实验设计的方案
                        2．教育实验研究评价的内容        教育实验研究的目标评价
                                教育实验研究的过程评价
                                教育实验研究的结果评价
        七、教育研究报告的撰写        （一）教育研究成果表述的基本结构        1．教育调查报告       
                        2．教育实验研究报告       
                        3．学术论文       
                （二）教育研究成果撰写的基本要求        1．在科学求实的基础上创新       
                        2．观点和材料的一致       
                        3．在独立思考的基础上借鉴吸收       
                        4．书写规范，文字精练、简洁，表达准确完整

探花1986

沙发

dodo117

好人，谢谢

chenyaqi2008

晕！你何必这么发上来啊，还不如上传个附件。不过还是值得鼓励啊！

wubo15

谢谢

muzixinxin

先顶后看~
好长啊...

jwd_coastline

谢谢 !!!!!!

cqing-09

这是什么东西啊 愣没看懂 呵呵

dreaminglong

many thanks

rongjing2007

虽然有点看不懂,还是谢谢